Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering http://pid.sagepub.

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Combined Thermal and Mechanical Analysis of Drum Brakes

A J Day, P R J Harding and T P Newcomb Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering 1984 198: 287 DOI: 10.1243/PIME_PROC_1984_198_156_02 The online version of this article can be found at: http://pid.sagepub.com/content/198/4/287

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Combined thermal and mechanical analysis of drum brakes

A J Day, MA, PhD, CEng, MIMechE and P R J Harding Mintex Limited, Cleckheaton,West Yorkshire T P Newcornb, DSc, CEng, FIMechE Department of Transport Technology, University of Technology, Loughborough
Thefrictional heat generated during braking is included in the full analysis of a commercial vehicle drum brake, avoiding artificial heat f The effects of lining partitioning by the use o a novel technique for the dynamic simulation of heat transfer at thefriction inte~ace. wear, empirically related to local values of surjiace temperature and pressure, together with thermo-elastic effects, are taken account of in the calculation of interface pressure distributions and consequent brake pegormance. Analyses have been completed using twodimensionalfinite element meshes which model the combined assembly of brake shoes, linings and drum. These have been validated by comparisons between measured and calculated brake pe$ormance, and by observations of rubbing contact pattern.

NOTATION

specific heat (J/kgK) Youngs modulus (N/mm2) thermal conductivity (W/mK) actuation force on leading and trailing shoe respectively gu) interface pressure (N/mz) camshaft bearing radius (m) cam base circle radius (m) torque (Nm) time (s) duration of brake application wear increment (weight loss per unit area) wear increment (thickness loss per unit area) coefficient of thermal expansion (K- ) temperature (K) dynamic friction coefficient camshaft/bush friction coefficient Poissons ratio density (kg/m3) angle of shoe actuation force.
1 INTRODUCTION

In the operation of automotive brakes the generation of frictional drag force is always combined with the generation and dissipation of heat energy, and a major limitation of conventional brake analysis techniques has been the separate treatment of these two problems. In recent years brakes have been subjected to increasing levels of duty and rigorous legislative requirements, emphasizing the need for more detailed design information relating to both thermal and mechanical loading which can only be obtained if brake torque and brake tempxature calculations are combined. Avoiding extreme effects of temperature and pressure, the friction of many successful automotive brake linings is found to be reasonably stable. Nevertheless, drum brakes frequently show variations in torque output
The M S was received on I1 January 1984 and was accepted for publication on 18 April 1984.
93/84@ IMechE 1984

which have been studied by Millner and Parsons (l), and Gerbert (2). Such performance variation is an important consideration in the braking safety of heavy commercial vehicles (CV), and using finite element techniques for the analysis of a large CV brake, Wintle (3) and the present authors (4) have illustrated the effect of drum expansion upon the distribution of interface pressure produced by a flexible shoe and lining assembly operating against a rigid drum. In further analyses using this method, Day and Harding (J), showed that very small differences in radii amounting to only 0.2 mm in a rubbing radius of 210 mm could cause considerable change in the pressure distribution resulting in a significant effect upon shoe factor and hence brake performance. The effects of thermal expansion are a major cause of small differences in lininadrum rubbing radius so that the accurate calculation of temperature distributions and their corresponding thermal strains is essential to a complete brake analysis. Conventional methods of thermal analysis are limited by the assumption of uniform frictional heat flux, partitioned between lining and drum to give equal average surface temperatures, but a recent study of the dissipation of frictional heat from a brake interface (6) has used finite element methods for temperature calculations in which such assumptions have been avoided. This method of thermal analysis was combined with calculations of pressure distribution between non-rigid mating bodies, including the effect of lining wear in order to provide a realistic simulation of braking friction in an annular disc brake (7). A full analysis, applied to large CV drum brakes and combining the interdependent effects of temperature and lining wear in a model comprising flexible brake shoes, linings and drum, is presented here for a two-dimensional plane configuration.
2 SIMULATION METHOD

The simulation was based upon a cam operated, fixed anchor type of leading and trailing shoe brake assembly, 419 mm x 178 mm (163 in x 7 in), as illustrated in Fig. 1, and similar to that studied by Day and

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A J DAY, P R J HARDING AND T P NEWCOMB

rollers m

Fig. 1 Cam operated drum brake

Harding (5). The process of braking was divided into a number of time steps of 0.5 s duration, each comprising a calculation of interface contact and pressure distributions and the resulting transient temperatures. It was assumed that the pressure distribution remained constant over the short duration of each time step. The friction interface between brake linings and drum was modelled by the gap force method, described by Day and Newcomb (7), using the commercially available PAFEC 75 program (8). This method was shown to be most effective for adapting a structural analysis technique to transmit normal compressive and in-plane shear forces, but no tensile forces, across the friction interface. This interface was defined by a small gap, across which normal, compressive gap forces were transmitted between specified nodes on each friction surface. Tangential drag forces, opposing the direction of relative motion, were computed from these gap forces and applied using an iterative technique for the calculation of dynamic interface contact and pressure distributions.
3 THE FINITE ELEMENT MODEL (MECHANICAL ANALYSIS)

Fig. 2 Finite element mesh (mechanical analysis)

In practice the brake is actuated by a twin-lobed Scam which provides both force and lift to each shoe tip. The cam centre may be assumed to be rigidly fixed allowing rotation only so that both shoes are given an equal amount of lift per degree of cam rotation. This type of actuation is ideally modelled by a prescribed displacement of the finite element mesh at the cam end of each shoe, with the pivot ends constrained to allow rotation only. The simplest and most realistic way of ensuring that the drum finite element mesh remained coaxial with the brake, having a minimal effect upon its distortion, was to constrain four nodes spaced 90apart on the drum outer boundary to allow movement only in the radial direction.
4 THE FINITE ELEMENT MODEL (THERMAL ANALYSIS)

The brake shoes, linings and drum were modelled by two-dimensional plane b i t e element meshes in which such axial effects as bell-mouthing, barrelling, and temperature banding which describe distortions and temperature fluctuations across the width of the drum were not included. Each brake shoe was idealized by a single row of elements to give an equivalent section modulus to that provided by the original twin web design. A second row of elements represented the 110 arc length lining, and the brake drum was modelled as an annular ring, 419.4 mm i.d., 476.0 mm 0.d. The minimum permissible distance between each friction surface to enable the interface gap to be recognized by the computer program was 0.2 mm and therefore the inner radius of the drum was that amount greater than the radius of the lining. The actual separation of the surfaces was specified independently so that any initial contact pattern could be defined; any alteration to the system stiffness arising from the interface gap being negligible. For the purpose of these analyses, perfect initial contact was specified, representing the condition of linings which were fully bedded at ambient operating temperatures. The combined finite element mesh comprised 90 isoparametric plane stress elements with 408 nodes, as shown in Fig. 2.
P o lnstn Mesh Engrs Vol 198D No I5 rc

The finite element mesh used for thermal calculations relating to the linings was comprised of a large number of small elements because of the low thermal diffusivity of the friction material. In order to minimize the complexity of the model, heat transfer through the linings to the brake shoes was assumed to be negligible during transient braking periods of short duration, and the shoes were therefore not included. The cast iron drum was modelled by two annular rings of larger elements, the combined mesh thus comprising 236 isoparametric two-dimensional plane Laplacian elements and 800 nodes. Part of this mesh is shown in Fig. 3. Boundary heat transfer coefficients of 5 W/m2K were specified on all lining free surfaces, but for the outer surface of the drum, an average heat transfer coefficient of 40 W/m2K was calculated from an empirical relationship (9) for convective cooling of the brake drum.
5 SIMULATION OF HEAT TRANSFER FROM THE INTERFACE

For the purposes of braking friction simulation, it has been shown (7)that frictional heat generation can be assumed to occur in the surface layers of the lining
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COMBINED THERMAL AND MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF DRUM BRAKES

289

Anchor

Cam

Fig. 3 Finite element mesh (thermal analysis)

material. In a drum brake, lining temperatures will vary according to the surface pressure distribution, while for each complete revolution, brake drum temperatures will approximate to some time-averaged constant value around the circumference. The calculation of transient temperatures resulting from a sinusoidal lining pressure distribution was considered by Newcomb (lo), utilizing Fourier component summation, and a similar concept has been applied in this simulation in which each node on the lining friction surface was connected to each node on the rubbing path of the drum using PAFEC surface heat transfer elements (Fig. 4). This technique, new in its application to brake analysis, effectively enables frictional heat flux to be applied uniformly to each node on the drum surface whilst heat input to the lining is determined by circumferential pressure distribution on the lining surface. Contact resistance across the interface, has been observed to be responsible for a macroscopic jump in temperature between each friction surface and was found to be equivalent to average interface heat transfer coefficients ranging from 1000 W/m2K to 25000 W/m2K (11). Taking into account the effects of wear debris and surface coating, a value of lo00 W/m2K was specified in this analysis so as to simulate the maximum effect of interface contact resistance. Heat partition between the friction pair is thus realistically determined by interfacial heat transfer, controlled by interface contact resistance, thermal properties of materials and boundary conditions. Assumptions concerning heat partition or surface temperatures are therefore unnecessary.

6 MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Measurement of the properties of brake lining materials is subject to considerable difficulty because of their anisotropic nature and also the limitations imposed by their manufacture. Although specimens of a standard size and shape may be specially moulded, it is probable that the properties determined from them will differ from those in the actual product. It is therefore essential to measure thermophysical properties in the direction of interest on specimens cut from the actual product. Furthermore, it has been shown (6) that there can be significant differences between the properties of new and used friction material, particularly in thermal expansion, a parameter which is most important in the determination of interface contact and pressure distributions. Chemical analysis of used friction material has indicated that a thin surface layer (0.5 mm approximately) of char is formed by the thermal degradation resulting from high surface temperatures (6). Although the effect of such a thin layer on the bulk properties is small, it does make an important contribution to heat transfer across the friction interface. Wear products may also accumulate as a thin interfacial layer, often leading to a coating on the mating surface. The thermal properties of these layers were determined as far as possible and are included in Table 1, together with values of thermophysical properties which have been measured for a typical heavy duty moulded drum brake lining material. Also shown in this table are typical values for a brake drum and shoe.
7 FRICTION MATERIAL WEAR

generated at node i

I
Heat flow into lining

Lining friction surface

Wear of the brake lining was found to be in reasonable agreement with the Arrhenius type of relationship proposed by Rhee and Liu (12). Experimental data obtained from small sample tests provided the following empirical relationship for lining wear rate :

Fig. 4 Idealization of heat transfer at the friction interface

Q IMechE 1984

This refers to the specific lining material used in these analyses, but other types of friction material have been
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A J DAY, P R J H A R D M G A N D T P NEWCOMB

Table 1 Material properties

Material Temperature "C

Young's modulus E N/mm2

Poisson's ratio
V

Density

Coefficient of thermal expansion

a -

Thermal conductivity
k -

Specific heat
P

P
kdm3 1550

K-'
12 x 47 x 1 x 0 15 x

W/mK

Jg kK

New friction material U e friction sd material Lining surface char layer Wear debris Pearlitic cast iron (brake drum) Rolled mild steel (brake shoe)

Ambient 200 Ambient 400 Ambient Ambient Ambient Ambient

372 250 372 200

-

0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25

-

1550 1550 1550 1500

05 . 05 . 05 . 05 . 02 .
0.07 54 48

1235 1235 1200 1200 700 lo00 586 452

7100 7800

125 x 103
0 209 x 1 3

0.25 0.30

12 x

11 x

shown to follow a similar relationship, variation in composition being reflected in different numerical values of the constants.
8 COMPARISON OF FLEXIBLE AND RIGID DRUM ANALYSES

To illustrate the effect of drum flexure, values of brake torque, friction drag and shoe factor were calculated for both a rigid and a flexible drum. In both cases a prescribed displacement of 0.25 mm was applied to the shoe tip to simulate the fixed cam actuation under normal check braking (14 per cent deceleration) with perfect initial contact between linings and drum. The results are compared in Table 2, and at higher levels of deceleration greater divergence may be expected because of increased drum distortion.
Table 2 Comparison of calculated brake performance
Rigid drum analysis Leading shoe factor Trailing shoe factor Leading shoe friction drag (kN) Trailing shoe friction drag (kN) Leading shoe actuation force (kN) Trailing shoe actuation force (kN) Braking torque (Nrn) Flexible drum analvsis

These results showed that although a correspondingly higher shoe factor was predicted with the flexible drum, the actual braking torque generated was very much reduced because a large proportion of the actuation displacement (prescribed as 0.25 mm) was absorbed by drum deflection thereby reducing both effective cam lift and actuation force. This is a most important aspect of fixed cam brake operation, although in practice it should always be possible, in a well designed system, to follow up with any required movement or pressure. The differences between the calculated brake factors corresponded to the predicted pressure distributions shown in Fig. 5, demonstrating that the effect of drum flexure is to increase pressure at the ends of the linings.
9 FURTHER RESULTS FROM THE COMBINED ANALYSIS

16 .5 0.50 57.9 37.8 35.1 75.9 20050

1.97 0.58 2. 51 17.5 12.8 30.3 8930

A typical emergency stop giving an initial 6 m/s2 (60per cent g ) deceleration from a vehicle speed of 80 km/h, at a wheel loading of 4000 kg was analysed. These conditions corresponded to an initial power dissipation (of 3.8 MW/mZ)over the lining area and, at constant deceleration, a stop time of 3.7 s. The drum was assumed to have stabilized at a bulk temperature of 100C as a result of previous usage, while lining temperatures were assumed to decrease from 100C at the friction surface

p=0.38. cam lift=O.25 mm

---- Flexible drum

Anchor

Lining arc degrees

55 Cam

Fig. 5 Lining pressure distribution: comparison of rigid and flexible drum analyses
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COMBINED THERMAL AND MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF DRUM BRAKES

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Table 3 Brake performance

Time into brake application S

Leading (L) or trailing (T) shoe

Applied shoe tip displacement mm

0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9

Friction drag kN 37.8 25.4 38.6 26.6 38.2 20.2 31.7 16.8 23.4 11.4 15.9 8.7

Actuation force P kN

Shoe
factor

Brake torque

T kNm
1'92 0.54

0-0.5

0.5-1.0 1.0-1.5 1.5-2.0 2.0-2.5 2.5-3.0

L T L T L T L T L T L T

19.7 47.4 20.4 49.7 20.3 38.1 17.0 32.8 12.9 23.6 9.2 18.5

13.2 13.7 12.2 10.2 7.3 5.2

1.89 0.54 l.g9 0.53 1.87 0.51 1.82 0.48 1.73 0.47

to 20C at the shoe platform. Perfect initial contact between linings and drum was specified at an ambient temperature of 20C. The effect of lining wear as a single variable parameter during a single stop was investigated in a separate analysis which assumed zero thermal expansion. This was found to be negligible. For the purposes of this analysis therefore, the effect of wear was exaggerated by increasing the wear rate [equation (111 by a factor of ten in order to represent a lining with very low wear resistance. The analysis of six time steps (3.0 s of the stop) was completed, for which the predicted braking torque and shoe factors are summarized in Table 3. Assuming the full shoe tip actuation force to have been developed instantaneously at t = 0 s, an initial torque of 13.2 kNm was predicted, decreasing to 5.2 kNm at t = 3.0 s. This

DOR

Displaced mesh

'
during

Fig. 6 Deflected finite element mesh ( t = 0.5 S)

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braking

was due to the combined effect of drum expansion and lining wear, which absorbs some of the prescribed displacement (0.9 mm) applied to the shoe tips. Such a reduction in effective cam lift affects the pressure distributions and their corresponding shoe factors, which demonstrates that during a single stop, both actuator travel and actuation force would need to be increased to maintain the same braking torque. Such effects are commonly identified as brake fade, but it can be seen that they occur independently of any variation in coefficient of friction between lining and drum, which, in the analysis, was specified as a constant value of 0.38. The deflected shape of the finite element mesh over the initial time step is shown in Fig. 6, with the corresponding lining surface pressure distribution displayed in Fig. 7. Localized high pressures (in the region of 4 MN/m2) which were predicted over the ends of the leading shoe lining decreased during the analysis to give a much more uniform pressure distribution at t = 3 s as can be seen in Fig. 8. On the trailing shoe, however, pressure was poorly distributed at all stages, commencing with high pressure at each end of the lining and very low pressure over the central region. This distribution subsequently changed so that at t = 3 s (Fig. 8) pressure was concentrated over the trailing (cam) end with lost contact over most of the leading (anchor) half of the lining. Poor pressure distribution can create problems of high localized heat generation leading to pronounced variations in surface temperature such as that depicted in Fig. 7, where lining surface temperatures of 900C or more were predicted at the ends of the linings, compared with 400C in the central region. Such high values of temperature are known to occur in practice as 'flash' or 'spot' temperatures on friction surfaces, and cause changes in lining properties during use, in particular the formation of a surface char layer. The highest lining temperatures were reached early in the stop, but drum surface temperatures attained a maximum value of 225"C, similar to the lowest values of lining surface temperature. This occurred at t = 1.5 s. Typical temperature profiles through linings and drum at t = 3.0 s are shown in Fig. 9, indicating that the assumption of zero heat flow from the back face of the linings into the shoe was realistic for transient braking conditions since heat penetration into the lining did not exceed 7 mm. Steady state conditions in the drum were not reached
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Fig. 7 Predicted lining surface pressure, temperature and wear (t = 0.5 s)

during the simulation and, at the outer surface, the predicted rise in temperature was only about 2C. Calculated lining wear over the simulation varied from 70 pm at the leading end of the leading shoe to approximately 1 pm over the central regions, and from f about 100 pm at the trailing end o the trailing shoe to a negligible amount over the central regions. The average wear was approximately 17 pm and 13 pm for the leading and trailing shoes respectively. These values are unrealistically high for a single (3 s) brake application, but simply reflect the artificially exaggerated wear rate used in the analysis so as to enable the effects of lining wear to be studied more easily.
10 DISCUSSION AND CORRELATION OF RESULTS

Fig. 8 Predicted lining surface pressure, temperature and wear (t = 3.0 s)

The calculated results demonstrate that the performance characteristics of drum brakes can be analysed using finite element techniques in a realistic simulation which combines not only the geometric and flexural effects of shoe assemblies and drum with those of interface contact and pressure, but also with the effects of temperature and wear arising from the friction braking process.

No satisfactory method is available for the direct measurement of dynamic pressure distributions and therefore a determination of brake factor from the torque output measured during dynamometer tests, together with frequent observations of friction surface contact conditions, provided the means of comparison between theory and practice. Experimental results relating to the type of S-cam drum brake modelled have already been presented and discussed in a specific study of the effect of lininddrum contact and pressure distributions on brake torque output (5). Over the dynamometer test sequence, comprising approximately 4OOO brake applications, Specific Torque, T,, was found to increase from an initial low value of 7.9 to a maximum of 12.0 before settling down to a value of 9.7. The initial low performance was shown to be due to a number of effects such as inaccuracies in part of the cam profile, and crown contact between linings and drum. This latter effect was intentionally produced by radius grinding of the lined shoes. It is also clear that fixed cam brake performance during the early stages of operation depends largely upon the ratio of work shared between the two shoes, and the low (or

Trailing end of leading shoe

Middle of leading shoe

Drum

Fig. 9 Temperature profiles through drum and leading shoe

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COMBINED THERMAL AND MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF DRUM BRAKES

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Perfect initial contact pc=0-l

r=0*38

would therefore be increased to approximately 12.5, which is closer to the final predicted result shown in Table 4.
Table 4 Predicted specific torque
~ ~

Time

Shoe. tip displacement mm

09 . 09 . 09 . 09 . 09 . 09 .

Total brake torque kNm

Percentage of work done by : leading trailing shoe shoe 60% 59% 65% 65% 67% 65%

Specific torque

T,
(pc = 0.1)

0-0.5

0.51.0 1015 .-. 1520 .-. 2.0-2.5 2.S3.0

13.2 13.7 12.2 1. 02 73 . 52 .

40% 4 Yo 1 35Y" 35% 33% 35%

1. 42 1. 40 15.3 1. 49 14.6 13.5

Proportion of total braking force provided by leading shoe per cent

Fig. 10 Calculated brake performance (5)

high) unbedded friction often attributed to new brake linings may be due, to a large extent, to clearance in the camshaft bush, or to shoe deflections, which settle out during bedding-in. The subsequent decrease in performance is compatible with the predicted transition from a 'floating cam' to an 'equal work' mode of operation, when each shoe provides half the total braking torque. The specific torque was found to depend upon a number of conditions influencing the operation of the S-cam, and for small values of cam rotation and lift, may be calculated from :

where

(This formula reveals the importance of maintaining cam and bearing friction to a minimum.) The final measured specific torque value of 9.7 was found to be equivalent to 'equal work' operation of the brake at a camshaftbush friction coefficient, p c , of between 0.05 and 0.1. Using pc = 0.1, the calculated brake performance throughout a stop which is assumed to commence with perfect lining and drum contact is presented in Table 4. These results show that, quite apart from any changes in individual shoe factor, predicted cam brake output for a fixed shoe tip displacement also varies as a result of the differing amounts of work which may be done by each shoe during a brake application. Quantification of this is illustrated in Fig. 10 where the proportion of work done by the leading shoe is decreased from 100 per cent to zero. For conditions of perfect initial contact, if the leading shoe provided, say, 65 per cent of the braking torque, then specific torque would increase by approximately 25 per cent compared with the equal work value. The final measured value of T, = 9.7 under equal work conditions
Q IMechE 1984

The full arc contact predicted over the leading shoe lining, and the concentration of pressure over the actuation end of the trailing shoe lining (Fig. 8) were confirmed by observed contact patterns. The pressure distributions .predicted for the trailing shoe support the observed tendency for this lining to wear-in slowly to full contact, and this was also confirmed by the incomplete trailing shoe lininddrum contact seen at inspections during much of the test procedure used. The practical significance of lining pressure distribution lies not only in its direct effect on shoe factor but also upon localized heat generation, since regions of high surface temperature correspond to those of high pressure. Problems of thermal damage to the friction surface of the linings or more particularly to the brake drum, are therefore more likely to occur before full contact is achieved, and unless it can be adequately maintained. Because of interdependent thermal expansion effects between drum and linings, together with practical considerations such as dynamic distortions, drum run-out or centre shift under load, ovality, and bearing clearances or constraints, a uniform distribution of pressure may never be fully achieved during the service life of the brake. The cyclic stresses generated by the stationary distorted form imposed upon the rotating brake drum may make a significant contribution to drum loading under dynamic conditions. This may help to explain the formation of surface cracks parallel to the drum axis and closely spaced round its circumference which are frequently observed even when no conventional thermal cracking and/or heat checking (blue-spotting) is present.
11 CONCLUSIONS

The circumferential distribution of pressure along the brake lining arc length plays an important role in determining the torque generated by a drum brake. Dynamic pressure distributions predicted by finite element analysis, which takes into account the flexure of brake shoes, linings and drum, are more cosinusoidal ('U' shaped) than those predicted assuming rigid components. The latter assumption which leads to a sinusoidal pressure distribution is adequate for basic design purposes but insufficient for the detailed study of problems arising from service brake performance. Thermal expansion of the drum is a most important factor which influences pressure distribution and
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hence brake performance, either within individual brake applications or over a period of time. Lining wear is greatest over regions of high surface pressure and temperature, and such regions will be worn away faster than low pressure regions, thus causing some trend towards uniform pressure distribution. During individual brake applications, the lining wear is very small, and therefore its effect will only become apparent over a large number of applications. High lining temperatures correspond to high rates of frictional heat generation and high interface pressures, and are generally higher than temperatures at the inner surface of the drum. Assumptions of heat partition between linings and drum based upon equal average surface temperatures therefore limit the full thermal analysis of drum brakes.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES
1 Millwr, N. and P a r ~ ~ m ,Effect of contact geometry and elastic R deformations on the torque characteristics of a drum brake. Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs, 1973,187,317-331. 2 Gerbert, G. On pressure and load distribution in vehicle brakes.

Machine Elements Divisiqn, Lund Technical University, Lund, Sweden, 1977. 3 W i d e , J. R Torque variations of drum brakes, MSc Thesis, Loughborough University of Technology, 1978. 4 Day, A. J., Hading, P R. J. and Newcomb, T P.A finite element . . approach to drum brake analysis. Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs, 1979,
193,401406.

5 Day, A. J. and Hardiig, P R J. Perfonnance variation of cam . operated drum brakes. Braking o road vehicles, IMechE Conf ference, 1983, paper C10/83, pp 60-77. 6 Day, A. J. Energy transformation at the friction interface of a brake. PhD thesis, Loughborough University of Technology,
1983. 7 Day, A. J. and Newcomb, T P The dissipation of frictional . . energy f o the interface of an annular disc brake. Proc. lnstn rm Mech. Engrs. 1984, Part D, No.11,201-209. 8 Henshell, R. D. (editor) PAFEC 75, theory and results manual, Nottingham University, 1975. 9 Newcomb, T P and Milloer, N. Cooling rates of brake drums and .. t discs. Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs, 1965-66,180, P .2A, 191-205. 10 Newcomb, T P Transient temperatures in brake drums and . . linings. Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs, 1958-59, No.I , 227-244. 11 Ling, F.F and Pu,S L Probable interface temperatures of solids . . in sliding contact. Wear, 1964,7,23-34. 12 Liu, T and Rhee, S K High temperature wear of asbestos. . . reinforced friction materials. Wear, 1976,37,291-297.

This work represents part of a research project undertaken within Mintex Technical Division with joint support from the Procurement Executive, Ministry of Defence. The authors wish to thank the Directors of Mintex Limited for permission to publish this paper, and also many colleagues for their interest and assistance.

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