Motor

|od0str|a| Techoo|og|es Program
A So0rcebook Ior |od0stry

Acknow|adgamants
I mprovi ng Motor and Dr i ve System Per for mance: A Sour cebook for I ndustr y was devel oped for the U.S. Department
of Energy s (DOE) Industri al Technol ogi es Program (I TP). Thi s proj ect i s one i n a seri es of sourcebooks on i ndustri -
al systems. Other publ i cati ons i n thi s seri es cover fan, compressed ai r, process heati ng, pumpi ng, and steam systems.
For more i nf ormati on about DOE and ITP, pl ease see Secti on 4, Where to Fi nd Hel p.
Thi s sourcebook was prepared f or ITP by techni cal staff at Lawrence Berkel ey Nati onal Laboratory and Resource
Dynami cs Corporati on. They wi sh to thank the many organi zati ons that so generousl y assi sted i n data col l ecti on and
to acknowl edge the hel pf ul revi ews and other contri buti ons provi ded by the fol l owi ng i ndi vi dual s:
Dal e Basso, Rockwel l Automati on
Thomas Bi shop, El ectri cal Apparatus Servi ce Associ ati on
Austi n Bonnett, El ectri cal Apparatus Servi ce Associ ati on
Rob Botel er, U.S. El ectri cal Motors
Denni s Bowns, Bowns & Co.
Don Casada, Di agnosti c Sol uti ons
Jasper Fi scher, I ndustri al Motor Repai r
John Kueck, Oak Ri dge Nati onal Laboratory
John Machel or, Motor-Vati ons, LLC
John Mal i nowski , Bal dor El ectri c Co.
Sal l y McI nerney, Uni versi ty of Al abama
Cynthi a Nyberg, El ectri cal Apparatus Servi ce Associ ati on
Howard W. Penrose, Ph.D., SUCCESS by Desi gn Rel i abi l i ty Servi ces
Charl es Straub, P.E., Marathon El ectri c
Edward J. Swann, Rockwel l Automati on
John Tol bert, Bri stol Compressor
Chuck Yung, El ectri cal Apparatus Servi ce Associ ati on
September 2008
Prepared f or the U.S. Department of Energy
Industri al Technol ogi es Program
By
Lawrence Berkel ey Nati onal Laboratory
Berkel ey, Cal i f orni a
Resource Dynami cs Corporati on
McLean, Vi rgi ni a
Produced by the Nati onal Renewabl e Energy Laboratory
Gol den, Col orado
Tab|a of 0ontants

Acknow|adgamants |
0u|ck Start 0u|da 1
Sact|on 1: Notor and 0r|va Systam 8as|cs 3
0.e|.|eW 8
A S]|er App|cac| 8
|rd|ca||cr c| Pcc| S]|er De|r 4
T]pe c| E|ec|||c |c|c| 4
|c|c| 0pe|a||r C|a|ac|e||||c 8
|cad C|a|ac|e||||c 10
|a|c||r |c|c| ard D||.e |c T|e|| App||ca||cr 11
|cad Du|] C]c|e 14
Ccrrcr |c|c| Se|ec||cr P|c||er 1o
Surra|] 1o
Sact|on 2: Parformanca 0pportun|ty 8oadmap 17
0.e|.|eW 1/
1/
Sact|on 3: Notor Systam Fconom|cs 39
0.e|.|eW 89
Urde||ard|r Cc|pc|a|e Pc||c|e 89
89
40
40
Surra|] 44
Sact|on 4: whara to F|nd Ha|p 45
D||ec|c|] c| Ccr|ac| 49
Recu|ce ard Tcc| o0
T|a|r|r Ccu|e o0
Appand|cas 1
Apperd|/ A. 0|ca|] c| Ba|c |c|c| S]|er Te|r o8
Apperd|/ B. |c|c| T|p S|ee| o/
Apperd|/ C. 99
Apperd|/ D. |c|c| Repa|| Se|.|ce Cer|e| C|ec|||| 10o
Apperd|/ E. 0u|de||re |c| Ccrrer| 111
0ont|nuad >
L|st of F|guras
||u|e 1. 4
||u|e 2. o
||u|e 8. o
||u|e 4. 8
||u|e o. 10
||u|e o. 11
||u|e /. 11
||u|e 8. 12
||u|e 9. 18
||u|e 10. 1o
||u|e 11. 1o
||u|e 12. 18
||u|e 18. 2o
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||u|e 1o. 84
||u|e 1/. 4o
||u|e 18. 4o
L|st of Tab|as
Ta||e 1. 28
Ta||e 2. 2/
Ta||e 8. 29
Ta||e 4. 48
0u|ck Start 0u|da
Thi s sourcebook i s desi gned to provi de those who use motor and dri ve systems wi th a ref erence that outl i nes opportuni ti es
to i mprove system perf ormance. I t i s not meant to be a comprehensi ve techni cal text on motor and drive systems; rather, i t
provi des practi cal gui del i nes and i nf ormati on to make readers aware of potenti al perf ormance i mprovements. Gui dance on
Pl ant engi neers, f aci l i ty managers, operati ons personnel , and others whose work i nvol ves motor and dri ve systems wi l l
Thi s sourcebook i s di vi ded i nto f our mai n secti ons, as outl i ned bel ow.
8ectiou 1. Notor aud Drive 8]stem Basics
descri bes i mportant terms, rel ati onshi ps, and system desi gn consi derati ons. I t al so descri bes key f actors i nvol ved i n
motor and dri ve sel ecti on and system desi gn, and provi des an overvi ew of the di f f erent types of motors and dri ves and
thei r appl i cati ons. Readers who are al ready f ami l i ar wi th key terms and parameters used i n sel ecti ng motors and dri ves,
desi gni ng systems, and control l i ng thei r operati on mi ght want to ski p thi s secti on and go on to the next one.
Sact|on 2: Parformanca 0pportun|ty 8oadmap
Thi s secti on descri bes the key components of a motor and dri ve system as wel l as opportuni ti es f or perf ormance
i mprovements. A systems approach i s emphasi zed, rather than a f ocus on i ndi vi dual components. Gui dance i s provi ded
Sact|on 3: Notor Systam Fconom|cs
Thi s secti on provi des recommendati ons on how to propose proj ects l i ke those descri bed i n Secti on 2 by hi ghl i ghti ng
f or management the f avorabl e economi cs of motor and dri ve system i mprovements. Topi cs i ncl ude understandi ng and
i mprovements, i ncl udi ng l i f e-cycl e costs and payback peri ods.
Sact|on 4: whara to F|nd Ha|p
Secti on 4 provi des a di rectory of associ ati ons and other organi zati ons associ ated wi th motors and dri ves and
thei r markets. Thi s secti on al so l i sts hel pf ul resources f or more i nf ormati on, tool s, sof tware, vi deos, and trai ni ng
opportuni ti es.
0u|ck Start 0u|da
lmproviug Notor aud Drive 8]stem Performauce. A 8ourceoook for ludustr] 1
Appand|cas
wi th Nati onal El ectri cal Manuf acturers Associ ati on (NEMA) Premi um
Sact|on 1: Notor and 0r|va Systam 8as|cs

Sact|on 1: Notor and 0r|va
Systam 8as|cs
0varv|aw
El ectri c motors, taken together, make up the si ngl e l argest
end use of el ectri ci ty i n the Uni ted States. I n i ndustri al
appl i cati ons, el ectri c motors account f or roughl y 60% of
el ectri ci ty consumpti on; i n the process i ndustri es, el ectri c
motors account f or more than 70% of el ectri ci ty use.
and costl y to operate i f they are not properl y sel ected
and mai ntai ned. I ndustri al pl ants can avoi d unnecessary
i ncreases i n energy consumpti on, mai ntenance, and costs,
by sel ecti ng motors that are wel l sui ted to thei r appl i cati ons
and maki ng sure that they are wel l mai ntai ned.
A Systam Approach
Cost-eff ecti ve operati on and mai ntenance of a motor and
approach anal yzes both the suppl y and demand si des of the
system and how they i nteract, essenti al l y shi f ti ng the f ocus
f rom i ndi vi dual components to total system perf ormance.
Operators can someti mes be so f ocused on the i mmedi ate
A common engi neeri ng approach i s to break a system down
i nto i ts basi c components or modul es, opti mi ze the sel ecti on
or desi gn of those components, and then assembl e the
probl ems. A di sadvantage i s that thi s approach i gnores the
i nteracti on of the components. For exampl e, si zi ng a motor so
that i t i s l arger than necessaryessenti al l y gi vi ng i t a saf ety
f actorensures that the motor i s strong enough to meet the
needs of the appl i cati on. However, an oversi zed motor can
especi al l y i n turbomachi nery such as f ans or pumps. I n
certai n ci rcumstances, an oversi zed motor can compromi se
the rel i abi l i ty of both the components and the enti re system.
I n a component approach, the engi neer empl oys a parti cul ar
desi gn condi ti on to speci f y a component. I n a systems
approach, the engi neer eval uates the enti re system to
expandi ng possi bi l i ti es, f rom l ooki ng f or one pi ece of
perf ormance over the enti re range of operati ng condi ti ons.
A basi c premi se of a systems approach i s that i ndustri al
systems usual l y do not operate under one condi ti on al l the
ti me. Motor and dri ve system l oads of ten vary accordi ng
to cycl i cal producti on demands, envi ronmental condi ti ons,
motors that typi cal l y run at more than one-hal f to f ul l
at l ess than one-hal f l oad or i nto thei r servi ce f actor. The
servi ce f actor i s a mul ti pl i er that i ndi cates the percentage
above f ul l l oad at whi ch a motor can operate wi thout
causi ng a f ai l ure under certai n condi ti ons. Common servi ce
f actor val ues are 1.10 and 1.15. Other avoi dabl e l osses
perf ormi ng usef ul work.
For exampl e, suppose that a motor-dri ven pump suppl i es
that the system pi pi ng and heat exchangers were desi gned
operati ng condi ti ons can vary accordi ng to the season, the
ti me of day, and the producti on rate. To handl e the need f or
appl i ed, but wastef ul i f i t i s not.
Si mi l arl y, many f an systems have vari abl e ai r del i very
i t meets the hi ghest expected l oad and use dampers to
and dri ve system of ten i ncreases mai ntenance costs. When
caused by energy l osses must be di ssi pated by pi pi ng,
structures, dampers, and val ves. Addi ti onal system stresses
can accel erate wear and create l oads f or whi ch the system
was not ori gi nal l y desi gned. For exampl e, i n a pumpi ng
val ves or through bypass val ves, or i t must be absorbed
by the pi pi ng and support structure. As a resul t, al l of thi s
structures can devel op cracks and l eak as a resul t of f ati gue
pl ant can create poor worki ng condi ti ons, such as hi gh
l evel s of noi se and excessi ve heat. Hi gh noi se l evel s

workpl ace. Thi s added heat usual l y must be removed by
the f aci l i ty s heati ng, venti l ati ng, and ai r-condi ti oni ng
(HVAC) system, f urther i ncreasi ng total operati ng costs.
|nd|cat|ons of Poor Systam 0as|gn
Taki ng a component-based approach to i ndustri al system
desi gn and operati on tends to i ncrease f aci l i ty costs and
the probl ems associ ated wi th a poorl y desi gned systemhi gh
system perf ormancecan be corrected, as i ndi cated bel ow.
High Euerg] 0osts
or desi gni ng a proper motor and dri ve system f or the

as vol tage sags, harmoni cs, and l ow power f actor.
Frequeut Naiuteuauce
of the appl i cati on tends to need more mai ntenance. The
the added stresses on the system and the i ncreased heat

desi gners of ten speci f y oversi zed
motor and dri ve and end-use
rel i abi l i ty. An oversi zed motor
mi ght be more rel i abl e, but i t mi ght
al so make other parts of the system
l ess rel i abl e. A more eff ecti ve way
of ensuri ng hi gh rel i abi l i ty i s to
desi gn a system and speci f y system
components so that the system s
f ul l range of operati ng condi ti ons.
Poor 8]stem Performauce
Operati ng a motor and dri ve system that was not properl y
sel ected f or i ts appl i cati on can resul t i n poor overal l
system perf ormance. Poor system perf ormance i s a
maj or cause of i ncreases i n mai ntenance and decreases i n
system starts and stops, hi gh noi se l evel s, and hot work
envi ronments. I n many materi al handl i ng systems, the
work-i n-process moves roughl y f rom one work stati on
to the next. The bangi ng that of ten accompani es sudden
accel erati ons and decel erati ons i s symptomati c of stress
temperature of the workspace, especi al l y i f the added heat
HVAC system.
Typas of F|actr|c Notors
To ensure that motors are appl i ed properl y, i t i s essenti al to
understand the vari ous types of motors and thei r operati ng
characteri sti cs. El ectri c motors f al l i nto two cl asses, based
on the power suppl y: alter nating cur rent (ac) or dir ect
curr ent (dc). The most common types of i ndustri al motors
are shown i n Fi gure 1.
Al ternati ng current (ac) motors can be si ngl e-phase or
most common type, mai nl y because many smal l motors are
used f or resi denti al and commerci al appl i cati ons i n whi ch
si ngl e-phase power i s readi l y avai l abl e. However, several
operati ng constrai nts on these motors l i mi t thei r wi despread
use i n i ndustri al appl i cati ons. I ntegral si ngl e-phase
A0 Notors 00 Notors Spec|a|ty Notors
8iugle Phases
0ompouud wouud
Permaueut Naguet
Pol]phase
lutroductiou
wouud Rotor
8]uchrouous
8witched Reluctauce
8quirrel 0age
8eries wouud
8huut wouud
Figure 1. Types cf mctcrs
i nducti on motors tend to pul l l arge starti ng currents rel ati ve
than three-phase motors of comparabl e si ze, and are not
avai l abl e i n l arger si zes.
I n contrast, pol yphase motors are used wi del y i n i ndustri al
appl i cati ons. They consume more than hal f of al l the
el ectri ci ty used i n i ndustry. Pol yphase motors can be f ound
i n al most every i ndustri al process, and they of ten operate
conti nuousl y to support producti on processes. These motors
current characteri sti cs. The eff ecti veness and l ow cost of
three-phase motors are maj or reasons why three-phase
power i s used so wi del y i n i ndustry. I n terms of energy
three-phase motor systems predomi nate. Theref ore, they
are the mai n f ocus of thi s sourcebook.
Direct 0urreut Notors
Di rect current (dc) power was central to Thomas Edi son s
vi si on of how el ectri ci ty shoul d be suppl i ed. Because of
thei r competi ti ve advantages, however, ac power and ac
motors soon became the i ndustry f avori te. Despi te the
predomi nance of three-phase ac motors, dc power has
advantages i n certai n i ndustri al appl i cati ons and i s sti l l
wi del y used.
The advantages of dc motors i ncl ude excel l ent speed
However, a maj ori ty of dc motors use brushes to transf er
el ectri cal power to the motor ar mature. Brush assembl i es
housekeepi ng probl em by generati ng carbon dust. Brushes
are al so sensi ti ve to contami nati on, especi al l y i n machi nes
that contai n si l i cone materi al s, and they must be repl aced
peri odi cal l y.
Si nce el ectri c power i s suppl i ed as al ternati ng current,
run dc machi nes. Because batteri es suppl y dc current, dc
motors have an advantage i n appl i cati ons i n whi ch the
motor i s suppl i ed by a dc bus as part of an uni nterrupti bl e
power system. Al though these appl i cati ons are somewhat
speci al i zed, they coul d i ncrease as i ndustry becomes more
hi gh cost of i nterrupti ons i n producti on.
There are f our pri nci pal cl asses of dc motors: seri es wound,
shunt wound, compound wound, and permanent magnet.
Seri es wound, shunt wound, and compound wound motors
di f f erences between these motors are based on how the
Series M otor. I n a seri es motor, as the name i mpl i es, the
stator and the rotor are connected i n seri es and the same
current. Thi s rel ati onshi p i s true unti l the magneti c strength
of the motor i s reached, a condi ti on known as satur ati on.
Beyond saturati on, any l oad i ncrease i s di rectl y proporti onal
to an i ncrease i n current.
Shunt M otor. I n a shunt motor, the rotor and the stator
of these motors i s rel ati vel y i ndependent of the l oad.
accurate control of the motor speed.
Compound M otor. A compound motor i s a combi nati on of
a seri es and a shunt wound motor. I t has two basi c ci rcui t
branches; one ci rcui t wraps around the stator, and the other
i s a seri es ci rcui t that i ncl udes both the stator and the rotor.
A key operati ng characteri sti c of thi s type of motor i s that i t
can handl e sudden i ncreases i n l oads wi thout a great change
i n speed.
Per manent M agnet. Permanent magnet (PM) motors rel y
on i nherentl y magneti c materi al ssuch as al l oys of cobal t,
motors can be up to 600 hp i n si ze. They can be constructed
i n several di ff erent ways, and some versi ons operate wi th ac
power. However, most i ndustri al PM motors are brushl ess
dc types. An el ectroni cal l y commutated motor (ECM) i s a
ECMs can use si ngl e-phase ac i nput power and convert i t
i nto three-phase operati on. And they use el ectromagneti c
f orce (EMF) sensi ng to determi ne rotor posi ti on and
perf orm the commutati on f uncti on. Because of thei r desi gn,
ECMs do not exhi bi t the brush wear and noi se associ ated
wi th typi cal dc motors.
PM motors have certai n perf ormance advantages over ac
i nducti on motors, especi al l y i n appl i cati ons wi th wi de
vari ati ons i n l oad and speed. PM motors can mai ntai n
lmproviug Notor aud Drive 8]stem Performauce. A 8ourceoook for ludustr]
avoi ds many of the operati ng and mai ntenance probl ems
normal l y associ ated wi th dc motors. Advances i n PM
motor technol ogy have made thi s type competi ti ve wi th the
more commonl y used i nducti on motor/variable frequency
dr ive combi nati on, i n many appl i cati ons. A drawback
of PM motors i s thei r tendency to accumul ate magneti c
contami nants, even when the motor i s i dl e.
Alteruatiug 0urreut Notors
Al ternati ng current (ac) motors are the most wi del y used
i n i ndustry. I ndustry s pref erence for ac motors spri ngs
two pri mary types of ac motors: i nducti on (al so ref erred
to as asynchronous) and synchronous. Wi th the excepti on
of wound rotor motors that have sl i p ri ngs, the rotors of
i nducti on motors are not physi cal l y connected to any
external ci rcui ts; i nstead, the exci tati on current i s i nduced
current i s f ed di rectl y to the rotor by means of brushes or
sl i p ri ngs. I nducti on motors are used wi del y because of thei r
si mpl e desi gn, rugged constructi on, rel ati vel y l ow cost, and
characteri sti cal l y l ong operati ng l i f e. Synchronous motors,
on the other hand, have some usef ul advantages and are used
i n more speci al i zed appl i cati ons.
I n both types of motors, the stator ci rcui t creates a magneti c
synchronous speed. Thi s speed
depends on the number of poles and the frequency of the
el ectri ci ty suppl y, and i t i s determi ned by the f ol l owi ng
Synchronous speed =
number of pol es
at 1200 rpm.
An i mportant operati ng di ff erence between i nducti on motors
and synchronous motors i s that i nducti on motors operate
at somewhat l ess than synchronous speed. The di ff erence
between the actual speed and synchronous speed i s known as
sl i p. Synchronous motors operate wi thout sl i p at synchronous
speed.
I nduction M otor s.
and wound rotor types. I nducti on motors rel y on a magneti c
di f f erence i s the sl i p). As the l oad on the motor i ncreases,
the sl i p al so i ncreases. A typi cal i nducti on motor i s shown
i n Fi gure 2.
Squir rel Cage M otor s. The most common type of
name deri ves f rom the si mi l ari ty between the rotor and the
type of wi re wheel commonl y f ound i n pet cages at the ti me
bar s
are ei ther wel ded or cast to two ci rcul ar end ri ngs, f ormi ng a
ci rcui t wi th very l i ttl e resi stance.
Fau 0over
(Hood}
8tator
(wiudiugs}
Bracket
(Eud Bell}
8eal 0ouduit Box
0over
Fau
Frame Beariugs
Figure 2. |nducticn mctcr
0c0rtesy cf Ieescn FIectric 0crpcraticn
Notor 8haft 0ouduit Box
Rotor
8otor 8ars
od 8|ogs
Figure 3. 3quirreI cage rctcr
Advantages of thi s type of motor i ncl ude the f ol l owi ng:
and desi gners sel ect the ri ght motors f or appl i cati ons that
Oppor tuni ty No. 4, Sel ecti ng the Ri ght Motor, i n Secti on 2
of thi s sourcebook.
Wound Rotor M otor s. Another type of i nducti on motor i s
the wound rotor. I n thi s type, ei ther bars are i nserted i nto the
rotor or wi res are wound i nto sl ots i n the rotor. I n wound
rotors, current i s i nduced i n the rotor and the resi stance of
the rotor ci rcui t i s vari ed by addi ng or removi ng external
operati ng characteri sti c of these motors i s the abi l i ty to
amount of resi stance i n the rotor ci rcui t.
Characteri sti cs of thi s type of motor i ncl ude the f ol l owi ng:
iner tia l oads (i nducti on motor
sl i p l osses woul d be too l arge and coul d overheat rotors)
Synchronous M otor s. These motors, as thei r name
i mpl i es, operate at the same speed as the rotati ng magneti c
on motor si zethan i nducti on motors. They can al so add
a l eadi ng power f actor component to a di stri buti on system,
whi ch makes them attracti ve to many i ndustri al f aci l i ti es.
I n f act, synchronous motors are occasi onal l y operated
wi thout a l oad, as synchronous condensers, j ust to i ncrease
a f aci l i ty s power f actor.
I n i ndustri al synchronous motors, an external suppl y of dc
power i s usual l y suppl i ed to the rotor by a set of sl i p ri ngs
or brushes. I n newer model s, brushl ess exci tati on systems
and permanent magnet generators are bui l t i nto the rotor.
Si nce the dc current does not change the pol ari ty, the rotor
wi ndi ng becomes i noperati ve; as the dc current i s appl i ed,
the rotor speed i s pul l ed i nto synchroni ci ty wi th the rotati ng
Switched Reluctance M otors. Swi tched rel uctance (SR)
advantages that shoul d encourage thei r use i n an i ncreasi ng
number of appl i cati ons. SR motors do not have magnets or
rotor windings. Thei r si mpl e, rugged desi gn al so provi des
hi gher rel i abi l i ty. I mportant advantages of SR motors
SR motors operate much l i ke an el ectromagneti c coil.
The stator contai ns pol es that, when energi zed, create
i s l argel y a f uncti on of the power el ectroni cs that control
characteri sti cal l y hi gh power-to-wei ght rati os and are wel l
control characteri sti cs al so make them sui tabl e f or pump
and f an appl i cati ons i n whi ch power i s hi ghl y sensi ti ve to
operati ng speed. I n the past, the di sadvantages of SR motors
and hi gher operati ng noi se; however, i mprovements have
been made i n these areas.
SR motor technol ogy was i ni ti al l y devel oped i n the 19th
century, but l i mi tati ons i n power el ectroni cs technol ogy
made thi s type of motor i mpracti cal . Later devel opments i n
power el ectroni cs i mproved thei r perf ormance and l owered
thei r costs, i ncreasi ng thei r appl i cabi l i ty. However, the cost
of the power modul es of ten off sets the l ower cost of the SR
motor i tsel f . The modul es are rel ati vel y speci al i zed, of ten
generati ng f our-phase power.
I mprovements i n power el ectroni cs have made both PM
and SR motors and si mi l ar systems much more sui tabl e f or
many appl i cati ons. Despi te the many advantages of these
motor systems, the most common type of i ndustri al motor
i ndi spensabl e to pl ant operati ons, f aci l i ti es tend to resi st
usi ng a new motor technol ogy i f the current system i s
or i ncorporati ng better control s i nto exi sti ng i nducti on
motor systems i ncurs l ess ri sk and can resul t i n the same
technol ogi es exhi bi t.
Notor 0parat|ng 0haractar|st|cs
The most i mportant motor operati ng characteri sti cs are
horsepower, operati ng speed (measured i n revol uti ons
Hp =
5,252
Motor perf ormance depends on how wel l these operati ng
characteri sti cs match the l oad. The l oad on a motor i s not
al ways constant, and the response of the motor to changes i n
l oad i s a f undamental f actor i n sel ecti ng the ri ght motor f or
an appl i cati on. For more on thi s, see
No. 4, Sel ecti ng the Ri ght Motor, i n Secti on 2 of thi s
sourcebook.
Voltages
The motor vol tage must match the rated system suppl y
vol tage. A mi smatch between the motor vol tage and the
system vol tage can resul t i n severe operati ng probl ems
and, i n some cases, i mmedi ate f ai l ure. However, thi s type
of probl em i s not common. Operati ng a motor when the
more cri ti cal concern. And, probl ems l i ke these are of ten the
resul t of a di stri buti on system probl em, such as three-phase
vol tage unbal ance, vol tage outages, sags, sur ges, and over
or undervol tage.
motor operates at vol tages +/10% or more f rom i ts rated
vol tage. See Addressi ng I n-
Secti on 2 of thi s sourcebook. A f aci l i ty that experi ences
wi de swi ngs i n vol tage wi l l probabl y have an abundance of
that i s the case, the f aci l i ty s di stri buti on system shoul d be
revi ewed.
Horsepower
The horsepower rati ng of the motor shoul d be abl e to
oversi zed. I n other words, the motor s horsepower shoul d
ensure that the motor not operate bel ow 40% of f ul l l oad
are i mportant addi ti onal consi derati ons i n determi ni ng a
responsi veness of the motor i n starti ng and operati ng i s
cri ti cal and shoul d be consi dered concurrentl y wi th i ts
horsepower.
Engi neers shoul d be caref ul not to oversi ze a motor j ust to
tend to i ncur hi gher purchase, mai ntenance, and operati ng
costs (i ncl udi ng costs f or power f actor correcti on). A
systems approach to motor sel ecti on i s an eff ecti ve way of
8peed
The speed of an el ectri c motor i s an i mportant el ement that
depends on many f actors. The operati ng speed of a dc motor
depends on the type of motor, the strength of the magneti c
of the power suppl y, and sl i p characteri sti cs. Synchronous
most i nducti on motors operate wi thi n 1% to 3% of thi s
speed, dependi ng on the motor s sl i p characteri sti cs.
Common synchronous speeds are 3600, 1800, 1200, 900,
f rom these, however, so motors are usual l y combi ned wi th
vari ous types of speed adj ustment devi ces. These devi ces
i ncl ude gears, bel ts, eddy-current coupl i ngs, hydraul i c
can al so operate at mul ti pl e speeds by usi ng separate
Perceut Efficieuc]
Perceut Rated load
70 0 25 50 75 100
100
85
95
80
90
75
100 hp
50 hp
(Acaptec frcr A. 8cnnet, IFFF Trans. 36:1, Fi. 26, Jan. 2000)
wi ndi ngs wi thi n the same motor or by usi ng a si ngl e wi ndi ng
wi th an external swi tch that changes the number of pol es.
An i mportant consi derati on i s whether the speed must be
constant or vari abl e. I n constant speed appl i cati ons, gears
be served by mul ti pl e-speed motors or dri ve systems wi th
adj ustabl e speed rati os.
Adj ustable Speed M otor s. Many appl i cati ons that are
currentl y served by constant speed motors are wel l sui ted
f or vari abl e speed motors. For exampl e, i n many pumpi ng
usi ng restri cti ve devi ces, such as throttl e val ves or dampers,
cost-eff ecti ve opti on f or many systems.
Si mi l arl y, i n many materi al handl i ng systems, adj ustabl e speed
rel i abi l i ty. For exampl e, i n many conveyor systems, l i nes are
control l ed by energi zi ng and de-energi zi ng a seri es of motors.
l i ne components because of repeated stresses f rom starti ng
currents and accel erati on and decel erati on of mechani cal
components. Usi ng vari abl e speed dri ves can smooth out
Some motors have i nherent speed control capabi l i ti es. For
be as much as 20:1, and they can operate at 5% to 7% of the
motor s base speed (some can even operate at 0 rpm). Some
ac motors can al so be used i n speed adj ustment si tuati ons.
Wound rotor motors can have speed rati os of as much as
20:1 by changi ng the resi stance i n the rotor ci rcui t.
Another common method of control l i ng speed i s to use
i nducti on motors combi ned wi th VFDs. I nducti on motors
are wi del y used i n i ndustri al appl i cati ons because of thei r
i nherent advantages i n terms of cost, rel i abi l i ty, avai l abi l i ty,
operators are usual l y f ami l i ar wi th these motors, whi ch
f aci l i tate repai r and mai ntenance tasks.
Combi ni ng an i n-servi ce motor wi th a VFD provi des
f aci l i ti es wi th an eff ecti ve speed control technol ogy that does

not al l i n-servi ce i nducti on motors can be combi ned wi th a
VFD; engi neers shoul d eval uate motors case-by-case to see
i f such combi nati ons are f easi bl e. Mi sappl yi ng VFDs to i n-
some motor-dri ven machi nes have speed-dependent
l ubri cati on systems, and these must be consi dered i n any
assessment associ ated wi th changes i n speed.
I nducti on motors wi th VFDs are i ncreasi ngl y bei ng used
i n appl i cati ons that once f eatured dc motors. Al though dc
motors sti l l have some operati ng advantages i n l ow-speed,
wi th operati ng and mai ntai ni ng a dc motor system i s an
i mportant f actor behi nd the i ncreasi ng numbers of i nducti on
motor/VFD systems. See Usi ng
Another speed control opti on i s to use an ac motor wi th
an i ntermedi ate dri ve devi ce that al l ows adj ustabl e speed
rati os. Eddy current and hydraul i c coupl i ngs al l ow varyi ng
to achi eve the desi red output speed. I n eddy current
coupl i ngs, the sl i p i s control l ed by adj usti ng the strength of
a pump si mi l ar to the one used i n automobi l e transmi ssi ons
work. Drawbacks to these devi ces i ncl ude rel ati vel y l ow
and hi gh mai ntenance costs.
M ultiple-Speed M otor s. Mul ti pl e-speed motors are another
speed control opti on. Ac motors can be bui l t to operate at
di f f erent, di screte speeds usi ng two pri nci pal approaches.
Fi rst, they can be constructed wi th mul ti pl e wi ndi ngs, one
f or each speed. These motors are usual l y two-speed, but
they can be bui l t to run at three or f our speeds. Motors wi th
di f f erent sets of wi ndi ngs are used i n many cool i ng system
appl i cati ons so they can operate at di ff erent speeds. I n
of the addi ti onal wi ndi ngs. Second, i n many mul ti pl e-speed
motors, a si ngl e wi ndi ng can be control l ed wi th a starter
speeds (wi th a rati o of onl y 2:1).
A pri nci pal advantage of mul ti pl e-speed motors i s thei r
abi l i ty to operate at di f f erent speeds usi ng a compact motor/
dri ve assembl y. Fl oor space i s val uabl e, and mul ti pl e-
speed motors are space savers. Al ternati ve speed control
mai ntenance.
Torque
many desi gn characteri sti cs.
operati ng speed i f i t cannot accel erate the l oad f rom rest.
devel ops when i t runs f rom zero to f ul l -l oad speed (bef ore
i n the l oad; however, sustai ned operati on above f ul l l oad
motor wi l l stal l , causi ng i t to rapi dl y overheat and ri ski ng
i nsul ati on f ai l ure i f i t i s not properl y protected.
Load 0haractar|st|cs
There are f our basi c types of l oads:
proporti onal to speed. For exampl e, i n centri f ugal pumps
speed. Common appl i cati ons i ncl ude conveyor systems,
hoi sts, and cranes. For exampl e, conveyi ng a 500-pound
mi nute or 10 f eet per mi nute. Al though horsepower vari es
decreasi ng speed and vi ce versa. A good exampl e of thi s
i ncreases as the rol l thi ckness bui l ds up but the rotati onal
speed sl ows down. Machi ne tool s such as l athes and cutti ng
machi nes di spl ay these operati ng characteri sti cs.
An exampl e i s an oi l wel l pump; i n thi s appl i cati on,
f orce than the upstroke. Al so, some ai r compressors
and ref ri gerati on system compressors have cycl i c l oad
characteri sti cs; they tend to shut down and start up i n
response to system pressures.
Load i nerti a ref ers to the resi stance of the l oad to changes
i n speed. Appl i cati ons that have hi gh l oad i nerti a tend to
ref erred to by the term Wk
2
. Exampl es of l oads wi th hi gh
a strong ef f ect on the responsi veness of the motor system to
changes i n the l oad.
Perceut of Full load Torque
Perceut of 8]uchrouous 8peed
Figure 5. TypicaI mctcr speed tcrque curve
0 25 50 75 100
250
200
100
150
50
Locked 8otor Torg0e
(a|so Start0p Torg0e)
P0||-0p Torg0e
8reakdowo Torg0e
F0|| Load Torg0e
Flow
final
= flow
initial

rpm
final
rpm
final
Pressure
final
= pressure
initial

rpm
final
rpm
final
Power
final
= power
initial

rpm
final
rpm
final
Natch|ng Notor and 0r|vas to Tha|r App||cat|ons
To sel ect the proper motor for a parti cul ar appl i cati on,
by i ndustri al motor-dri ven appl i cati ons i s used to dri ve
pumps, f ans, and compressors. Wi thi n these appl i cati ons,
centri f ugal pumps and f ans share some common rel ati onshi ps

page 10).
One i mportant i mpl i cati on of these l aws i s that power
consumpti on i s hi ghl y sensi ti ve to operati ng speed.
ti mes more power. Si mi l arl y, decreasi ng the speed of a f an
The pump perf ormance curve shown i n Fi gure 6 i l l ustrates the
rel ati onshi p between power and speed. The operati ng poi nt
i s the i ntersecti on between the system curve and the pump s
The throttl e val ve i ncreases the pressure i n the pi pe and takes
pump perf ormance to poi nt A on the ori gi nal perf ormance
curve. Openi ng the throttl e val ve drops the pressure.
Note how the amount of power that the pump uses i s
dramati cal l y reduced by sl owi ng i ts rotati onal speed.
Reduci ng the pump s speed wi th an adj ustable speed
dr ive (ASD) takes the pump to operati ng poi nt B. Al though
i t does so wi th much l ess horsepower. At poi nt B, the
There i s no l onger a l arge pressure drop across the throttl e
system vi brati on are reduced. Addi ti onal exampl es of thi s
rel ati onshi p are shown i n Fi gures 7 and 8.
Total Head (ft}
Flow (gpm}
Figure 6. ffect cf speed reducticn cn the pcwer used by a pump
0 50 100 150 200 250 800
200
1O0
80
120
40
0r|g|na| Parformanca 0urva
0r|g|na|
Systam 0urva
0as|rad
F|ow 8ata
Po|nt 8
Po|nt A
0|stanca |n
Powar
Parformanca 0urva Aftar
8aduc|ng Pump Spaad
Thrott|ad
Systam 0urva
8ag|n w|th 100 Fnargy Un|ts
100 99 98 80 O1
O1
19
18
Fnargy Lossas
18 1
84
8ama|n|ng Fnargy Un|ts
Transformar Notor Pump
Thrott|a Va|va
(partiall] closed, assume
a 19 euerg] uuit loss}
Fnd w|th 34 Fnargy Un|ts
Repl aci ng a control val ve wi th an ASD can i ncrease system
i n Fi gure 7, 100 energy uni ts are suppl i ed to the system;
however, i n Fi gure 8, the system does the same work wi th
onl y 80 energy uni ts. Wi th the ASD, much l ess energy i s
l ost across the throttl e val ve because the pump generates
Pumps
Centri f ugal pumps are the type most commonl y used,
pri mari l y because they are l ow i n cost, si mpl e to operate,
rel i abl e, and easy to mai ntai n. I n addi ti on, they have
rel ati vel y l ong operati ng l i ves.
System desi gners and engi neers need to understand
pump correctl y. Many engi neers tend to be conservati ve
the si ze of the centri f ugal pump and motor to accommodate
desi gn uncertai nti es, potenti al capaci ty expansi ons, and
system f oul i ng. However, thi s approach of ten l eads
to oversi zed pump/motor assembl i es. Oversi zi ng can
i ncrease operati ng costs as a resul t of i ncreased energy and
because of added stresses on the system.
i ncl ude throttl e val ves, bypass val ves, mul ti pl e-speed

drawbacks, dependi ng on the parti cul ar appl i cati on.
When they are i ncorporated properl y i nto a system, these
However, i mproper desi gn or use can i ncrease system costs
to the system s actual need. I n pumpi ng systems, VFDs are
by f ar the most commonl y used adj ustabl e speed opti on.
Al though i nstal l i ng VFDs can resul t i n substanti al energy
savi ngs, they are not sui tabl e f or al l appl i cati ons,
parti cul arl y those i n whi ch pumps operate agai nst hi gh
stati c (or el evati on) head.
A usef ul tool f or eval uati ng potenti al pumpi ng system
i mprovements i s the Pumpi ng System Assessment Tool
(PSAT). Devel oped wi th the support of the U.S. Department
of Energy I ndustri al Technol ogi es Program (I TP) and
avai l abl e at no charge to users, the PSAT sof tware hel ps
the user eval uate pumpi ng systems i n order to determi ne
the best i mprovement opportuni ti es. A screeni ng process
f urther anal ysi s. For more i nf ormati on on the PSAT and
I mprovi ng Pumpi ng System Per for mance: A Sourcebook for
I ndustr y, whi ch i s avai l abl e on the I TP Web si te at www.
eere.energy.gov/i ndustry/bestpracti ces.
8ag|n w|th 80 Fnargy Un|ts
80 79 71 77 O1 O1
27
0
10
Fnargy Lossas
O 1
84
8ama|n|ng Fnargy Un|ts
Transformar
8
VF0 Notor Pump
Thrott|a Va|va
(Full opeu, assume
uo losses}
Fnd w|th 34 Fnargy Un|ts
Faus
wi th pressure. Fans can be grouped i nto two f undamental
energy to the ai rstream: axi al f ans and centri f ugal f ans.
Axi al f ans move ai r al ong the axi s of a f an, much l i ke
a propel l er. Centri f ugal f ans use a rotati ng i mpel l er to
accel erate ai r outward. Thi s accel erati on i ncreases the
ki neti c energy of the ai rstream, whi ch transl ates i nto
an i ncrease i n pressure. These di f f erences have several
i mpl i cati ons wi th respect to motors. Axi al f ans usual l y
operate at hi gher speeds and, i n some cases, they are
di rectl y coupl ed to the motor. Centri f ugal f ans tend to be
heavi er, and they of ten have hi gh l oad i nerti a. Thi s hi gh
l oad i nerti a can aff ect a pl ant s el ectri cal di stri buti on
system, especi al l y when the f ans are started. However,
devi ces that avoi d the stresses of across-the-l i ne starts.
Most f ans are dri ven by i nducti on motors that operate at
3600, 1800, and 1200 rpm. Si nce these motor speeds are
usual l y too hi gh f or di rect dri ves, bel t dri ves are usual l y used
to establ i sh the desi red f an speed. An i mportant excepti on
to thi s gui del i ne i s vaneaxi al f ans. These f ans are compact,
mi ni mi ze the stresses caused by hi gh rotati ng speeds.
Fan system desi gners al so tend to be conservati ve, of ten
oversi zed f ans i ncrease operati ng costs and can cause
probl ems that are si mi l ar to those caused by oversi zed
pumps. Oversi zed f ans are of ten noi si er than they shoul d be,
the temperature, producti on l evel , occupancy, and boi l er
demand. Al though
i s to use a speed-control mechani sm, such as a VFD, to
adj ust the f an s output. VFDs of ten have i nherent sof t-
start capabi l i ti es that can l i mi t starti ng currents. More
i nf ormati on on f an systems can be f ound i n I mprovi ng Fan
System Per for mance: A Sourcebook for I ndustr y, whi ch
i s avai l abl e on the I TP Web si te at www.eere.energy.gov/
i ndustry/bestpracti ces.
A usef ul tool f or eval uati ng potenti al f an system
i mprovements i s the Fan System Assessment Tool (FSAT).
Devel oped wi th the support of I TP and avai l abl e f or
downl oad on the I TP Web si te, FSAT sof tware hel ps the
user eval uate f an systems i n order to determi ne the best
f an appl i cati ons that are worth i nvesti gati ng f urther, and
More i nf ormati on on FSAT and f an systems can be f ound
i n I mprovi ng Fan System Per for mance: A Sourcebook for
I ndustr y.
posi ti ve di spl acement pumps, and posi ti ve di spl acement
di f f erent f rom that of pumps and f ans. Some energy-savi ng
measures that are usef ul wi th certai n centri f ugal pump
and f an systems, such as ASDs, can al so save energy wi th
these other systems. However, thi s i s true onl y i n certai n
appl i cati ons, such as rotary screw compressors wi th vari abl e
l oads. I n addi ti on, many common desi gn and operati ng
wi th respect to compressed ai r systems.
Air 0ompressors
Compressed ai r i s i mportant to most i ndustri al f aci l i ti es.
I t i s used f or such appl i cati ons as dri vi ng hand tool s,
suppl yi ng pneumati c control systems, appl yi ng pai nts and
coati ngs, and cl eani ng and dryi ng parts. There are two
pri nci pal types of ai r compressors: posi ti ve di spl acement
and dynami c. Posi ti ve di spl acement compressors are more
commonl y used than dynami c ones.
El ectri c motors are wi del y avai l abl e, and they provi de
power to compressors economi cal l y, rel i abl y, and
pol yphase i nducti on motors; however, i n some cases,
motors wi th a hi gher servi ce f actor are used. I n certai n
8tatic Pressure (wg}
Flow Rate (cfm}
0 2000 O000 10,000 14,000 18,000
28
12
24
20
8
1O
4
Systam 0urva
Fan 0urva
Figure 9. TypicaI fan and system curves
compressor or repl acement motor. The i ncremental cost of
short ti me because of the resul ti ng energy savi ngs.
one, i t i s i mportant to pay caref ul attenti on to perf ormance
repl acement motor s perf ormance shoul d be as cl ose as
possi bl e to that of the ori gi nal motor. When repl aci ng a
dri ve motor i n a compressor that uses a VFD as part of the
control system, make sure the motor i s desi gned to be used
wi th inver ters.
For most compressed ai r systems, demand vari es wi del y
f rom day to day. Changes i n shi f ts and producti on l evel s,
as wel l as downti me on ni ghts and weekends, can create
hi ghl y vari abl e l oad duty cycl es. Accommodati ng these
compressed ai r system desi gn.
The rotary screw ai r compressor i s the type most wi del y
used. Usi ng VFD opti ons to control output i s becomi ng
more common; however, most control systems sti l l
compressor, usi ng a l oad/unl oad mechani sm, throttl i ng the
i nput, empl oyi ng a vari abl e di spl acement devi ce, or usi ng
some other means of operati ng the compressor at part-
l oad. A l oad/unl oad control strategy uses a val ve or some
other pressure-rel i evi ng devi ce to reduce the l oad on the
compressor so that i t conti nues to operate.
These output control opti ons f or motor and dri ve systems
the el ectri cal di stri buti on system and can cause motors to
run at hi gh temperatures. I n addi ti on, part-l oad operati on
of a motor usual l y resul ts i n a l ow power f actor, whi ch,
i f not corrected, can l ead to power f actor penal ti es. A
vari abl e di spl acement control strategy changes the output
of the compressor by control l i ng the di spl acement vol ume.
For more i nf ormati on on compressed ai r appl i cati ons,
see I mprovi ng Compressed Ai r System Per for mance: A
Sourcebook for I ndustr y, whi ch i s avai l abl e on the I TP Web
si te at www.eere.energy.gov/i ndustry/bestpracti ces.
A usef ul tool f or assessi ng i mprovement opportuni ti es
i n compressed ai r systems i s AI RMaster+. Thi s sof tware
tool was devel oped to hel p users si mul ate exi sti ng system
provi des comprehensi ve i nf ormati on on assessi ng
compressed ai r systems, i ncl udi ng model i ng exi sti ng and
f uture system upgrades, and eval uati ng the savi ngs and
di f f erent operati ng schedul es and control strategi es,
AI RMaster+ can hel p you determi ne how best to i mprove
a compressed ai r system. AI RMaster+ i s avai l abl e f or
downl oad on the I TP Web si te.
0ther Applicatious
Motors and dri ves are al so used i n a wi de range of
materi al handl i ng and materi al processi ng servi ces. These
exampl e, materi al processi ng l oads l argel y depend on the
nature of the materi al bei ng moved, mi xed, chopped, or
si f ted. Al so, these appl i cati ons may be ei ther batch-type or
conti nuous, and operati ng pri ori ti es vary wi del y i n each of
those two categori es.
Despi te al l of these di ff erences, usi ng a systems approach
i n desi gni ng, operati ng, and modi f yi ng motor and dri ve
systems tends to reduce operati ng costs and i ncrease
system rel i abi l i ty. Thi s approach stresses the i mportance
of eval uati ng how di ff erent system components i nteract
and how di ff erent control or si zi ng opti ons can keep the
eval uate the l oad duty cycl e of system components.
Load 0uty 0yc|as
The term l oad duty cycl e ref ers to the amount of ti me that
capaci ty. An exampl e of a l oad duty cycl e i s shown i n
worst-case operati ng condi ti ons, appl i cati ons i n whi ch
normal operati ng l oads are much smal l er than the worst-
case l oad of ten f orce the motor to operate at part-l oad much
of the ti me. The l oad duty cycl es f or such motors woul d
show a peak number of operati ng hours at l ow l oad l evel s.
Thi s probl em i s actual l y rel ati vel y common. The
Uni ted States I ndustr i al El ectr i c Motor Systems Mar ket
Oppor tuni ti es Assessment, sponsored by I TP, f ound that
more than 40% of the motors i n i ndustri al appl i cati ons
operate at or bel ow 40% of thei r l oad rati ng. The
wi de range of condi ti ons, there are of ten many excel l ent
opportuni ti es to opti mi ze the enti re system, save energy,
and i mprove rel i abi l i ty by maki ng vari ous i mprovements.
I mprovement opportuni ti es can i ncl ude repl aci ng the motor
wi th one of a more appropri ate si ze or type, or i nstal l i ng a
speed-adj usti ng devi ce (or both).
I n consi deri ng whether to downsi ze a motor, i t i s i mportant
to check the l oad duty cycl e to avoi d overl oadi ng the motor
duri ng peak-l oad condi ti ons. Thi s i s especi al l y appl i cabl e
i n seasonal i ndustri es that experi ence peak l oads onl y a
f ew ti mes each year. For exampl e, the motor descri bed i n
Fi gure 10 operates near f ul l l oad about 15% of the ti me. I n
that case, downsi zi ng the motor coul d cause overheati ng, so
speed control coul d be a better sol uti on.
0ommon Notor Sa|act|on Prob|ams
operated at very l i ght l oads, that i s, bel ow 40% of the rated
l oad. A good rul e of thumb i s to si ze motors to operate at
about 75% l oad. Thi s wi l l al so take i nto account occasi onal
any errors i n the cal cul ati on of the motor l oad.
0versized Notors
the exi sti ng motor/dri ve assembl y can support anti ci pated
oversi zi ng motors i ncl ude the f ol l owi ng:

Motor operati on at l ow load factor can resul t when
the dri ven l oad i s smal l er than anti ci pated. I n many
l i abi l i ty i n speci f yi ng a motor that cannot meet servi ce
who assembl e the system to be conservati ve can l ead to
the sel ecti on of a motor that operates f ar bel ow i ts rated
capaci ty.
Poor Power Factor
power f actor. Power f actor i s the rati o of real powerthe
power used to perf orm mechani cal workto apparent
power. I n many motors, some of the el ectri cal energy i s
between the motor s peak vol tage and i ts peak current.
When current and vol tage are out of phase, the amount
of real power i s l ess than the amount of el ectri c power
avai l abl e (the scal ar product of vol ts and amps) i n the
l i ne. The vector di f f erence between real power and the
product of vol ts and amps i s known as reacti ve power . Thi s
rel ati onshi p i s shown i n Fi gure 11.
8aa| Powar (kw}
Powar Factor
Figure 11. vectcr representaticn cf pcwer factcr
Perceut of 0peratiug Hours
Perceut of Notor Full load
Figure 10. Lcad duty cycIe - xampIe 1
0 20 40 O0 80 100
45
40
85
80
25
20
10
15
5
Reacti ve power creates addi ti onal I
2
R l osses i n the
di stri buti on system and creates addi ti onal stress on
transf ormers. (I ref ers to current and R ref ers to resi stance;
drop and current; vol tage drop i n a resi sti ve ci rcui t i s the
of ten assess f ees f or reacti ve power to recover the costs
Pl ants that have l arge motor systems of ten f ace substanti al
power f actor penal ti es; theref ore, many f aci l i ti es i nvest i n
capacitor s to i ncrease thei r overal l power f actor and thus
mi ni mi ze these costs.
Uudersized Notors
Another type of motor sel ecti on probl em i s undersi zi ng the
motor f or the i ntended appl i cati on. Motors shoul d be si zed
to operate f rom 75% to 100% of rated l oad. The pri nci pal
hi gher wi ndi ng temperature, whi ch shortens the operati ng
l i f e of the motor. I f the motor has a servi ce f actor of 1.0, the
motor l i f eti me may be onl y a f ew months i f i t i s operated
above rated l oad or i f i t i s operated at rated l oad when there
As a rul e of thumb, every 10C ri se i n wi ndi ng temperature
drops of f sl i ghtl y at hi gher-than-rated l oads, the i ncrease i n
energy cost i s usual l y not as severe as the cost associ ated
wi th shorter i nterval s between repai rs or repl acements.
Summary
can of ten be f ound i n systems wi th poorl y si zed, i l l -
of the energy used by the motor systems i n an i ndustri al
f aci l i ty i s concentrated i n a f ew systems. These systems
tend to f eature l arge motors that run much of the ti me.
Energy-i ntensi ve motor and dri ve systems tend to be
cri ti cal l y i mportant to producti on. So, they mi ght not of ten
they woul d have to be shut down f or a ti me f or repai rs or
repl acement. However, because of the cl ose rel ati onshi p
that i nvol ve these systems.
proj ect i s the i ncreased l evel of motor rel i abi l i ty (i .e.,
engi neers, managers, and operators can provi de thei r
pl ants wi th an i mportant competi ti ve advantage by usi ng
appl i cati ons.
Sact|on 2: Parformanca
0pportun|ty 8oadmap
0varv|aw
For cost-ef f ecti ve operati on and mai ntenance of a motor
and dri ve system, operators must pay attenti on to the enti re
system as wel l as to i ts i ndi vi dual components. Of ten,
operators are so f ocused on the i mmedi ate demands of thi s
i ncl udes the ways i n whi ch system parameters aff ect al l the
Thi s bi g-pi cture vi ew i s embodi ed i n the systems approach.
I n thi s approach, the engi neer anal yzes the system i tsel f and
how i ts components i nteract, essenti al l y shi f ti ng the f ocus
f rom i ndi vi dual components to total system perf ormance.
A systems approach usual l y i nvol ves the f ol l owi ng types of
i nterrel ated acti ons:

esti mate f uture ones

duty cycl es

opti ons, taki ng al l subsystems i nto consi derati on

perf ormance.
opportuni ti es that address both component and system
motor system perf ormance:
1. Assessi ng Motor and Dri ve System Operati ng Condi ti ons
2. Establ i shi ng a Motor Management Program
3. Provi di ng Basi c Mai ntenance
4. Sel ecti ng the Ri ght Motor
6. Addressi ng I n-Pl ant El ectri cal Di stri buti on and
7. Usi ng the Servi ce Center Eval uati on Gui de
Eff ecti ve motor and dri ve system management can reduce
operati ng costs, i mprove perf ormance, and i ncrease
operati ng condi ti ons. I n thi s task, operators eval uate
perf ormance i mprovement opportuni ti es and provi di ng a
decl i ni ng and remedi al acti ons need to be taken.

Assass|ng Notor and 0r|va Systam 0parat|ng
0ond|t|ons
A l arge i ndustri al f aci l i ty can contai n thousands of motors,
so i t i s usual l y not practi cal to eval uate every motor system
i n a pl ant i ndi vi dual l y. I n many f aci l i ti es, however, most
of the energy used by motors i s consumed by j ust a f ew
systems, and these f ew systems are of ten essenti al to
producti on. I n addi ti on, energy proj ects i nvol vi ng essenti al
motor systems typi cal l y provi de the shortest paybacks.
Theref ore, pl ant engi neers and managers can usual l y
determi ne the most cost-ef f ecti ve motor i mprovement
that are essenti al and that consume the most energy.
best opportuni ti es f or motor system i mprovements.
Notor S|za and
Hours of 0parat|on
Scraan w|th 0ata
Acqu|s|t|on and Ana|ys|s
Kaap 8acords
Di ff erent i ndustri es have di ff erent motor system
energy consumers can be f ound i n i ndustri es that make
and ai r compressors. The Uni ted States I ndustr i al El ectr i c
Motor Systems Mar ket Oppor tuni ti es Assessment, a hel pf ul
many manuf acturi ng i ndustri es. Thi s publ i cati on can hel p
users i denti f y the systems i n thei r pl ants that use the most
energy, and can be f ound on the I TP Web si te at www.eere.
energy.gov/i ndustry/bestpracti ces.
A seri es of documents devel opment by I TP, Energy
Footpr i nts
U.S. manuf acturi ng i ndustri es. These publ i cati ons i denti f y
the sources and end uses of energy to hel p pi npoi nt areas of
of i ndi vi dual i ndustri es. Fi nd Energy Footpr i nts on the I TP
Websi te at www.eere.energy.gov/i ndustry/bestpracti ces.
vary wi del y and depend on each pl ant s l evel of i ntegrati on.
processes to i denti f y the most energy-i ntensi ve motor
systems. A wal k-through i nspecti on of the l arger motor
systems, payi ng parti cul ar attenti on to how thei r operati on
i s control l ed, can hel p staff get started. The MotorMaster+
sof tware tool , whi ch was devel oped by I TP and i s avai l abl e
pl ant s motor use.
Notor 8ize aud Hours of 0peratiou
Screeni ng a pl ant s motors by motor si ze and annual
operati ng hours can make i t easi er to i denti f y the best
opportuni ti es f or i mprovements. Large motors that operate
f or l ong peri ods of ti me are usual l y the best candi dates f or
Data Acquisitiou aud Aual]sis
Af ter i denti f yi ng the most energy-i ntensi ve motor systems,
the user can start col l ecti ng operati ng data on the motors
and the systems sl ated f or i mprovements. The data can be
power generated by a pump or f an.
can of ten be esti mated by measuri ng the pressure devel oped
by the f an or pump. I f perf ormance curves f or the f an or
pump are avai l abl e, then the motor l oad correspondi ng to
these pressure data can be determi ned.
Materi al handl i ng, compressed ai r, and some other systems
do not usual l y have the i nstrumentati on needed to esti mate
motor l oads. I n these cases, l oads must be measured
el ectri cal l y. Thi s can be done i n any of several ways,
dependi ng on how the motor and the motor control l er are
the motor control center and, by usi ng a power meter, can
di rectl y measure vol tage, current, and power f actor. Of ten,
these measurements can be hel pf ul i n eval uati ng other
aspects of motor systems, i ncl udi ng tuni ng the i n-pl ant
di stri buti on system.
For more i nf ormati on on some of the el ectri cal probl ems
that i mpai r the perf ormance of motor systems, see
Addressi ng I n-Pl ant
measurements are al so usef ul i n determi ni ng system
economi cs, as di scussed i n Secti on 3 i n thi s sourcebook on
motor and dri ve system economi cs. I n f act, the methods
used to cal cul ate annual motor energy use are the same.
A l oad duty cycl e i s hel pf ul i n eval uati ng motor system
i mprovement opportuni ti es. I n many systems, l oads vary
seasons, and product mi x. Si mi l arl y, some motors normal l y
operate near thei r f ul l -l oad rati ng, whi l e others normal l y
0 20 40 O0 80 100
85
80
25
20
10
15
5
operate at smal l porti ons of thei r f ul l -l oad rati ng. Load
duty cycl es pl ot the l oad on a motor over ti me, as shown
i n Fi gure 12, and they shoul d be devel oped f or l arge motor
systems. Dependi ng on the f actors that dri ve the system
l oad, i t may be f easi bl e to devel op separate l oad duty cycl es
f or di f f erent seasons and product types.
System energy demand i s an i mportant data component
system demand to a motor s power use provi des a hel pf ul
materi al handl i ng systems).
For more i nf ormati on on how di ff erent l oad duty cycl es can
i mpact motor sel ecti on, see
Sel ecti ng the Ri ght Motor.
Recordkeepiug
Creati ng an i nventory record of energy-i ntensi ve (more
than 50 hp) or producti on-cri ti cal motors can be val uabl e
i n devel opi ng mai ntenance schedul es and i n tracki ng motor
l i f e and perf ormance. Mai ntai ni ng a hi story of motors
i mprovement opportuni ti es and perf ormance trends. These
records can al so be used to determi ne whether mai ntenance
program i s a usef ul tool f or devel opi ng and mai ntai ni ng
these records.
For more i nf ormati on on motor management, see
Oppor tuni ty No. 2, Establ i shi ng a Motor Management
Program, or the 1-2-3 Approach to Motor Management tool
of f ered by the Motor Deci si ons Matter
SM
nati onal awareness
campai gn (www.motorsmatter.org).
8ummar]
Determi ni ng motor system operati ng condi ti ons i s a
good pl ace to start i n order to i denti f y opportuni ti es that
reduce motor-rel ated costs, i mprove perf ormance, and
i ncrease rel i abi l i ty. Al though motor systems account
f or a l arge porti on of the energy used at many i ndustri al
f aci l i ti es, motor system management i s of ten reacti ve, i n
that i mprovements are made onl y i n response to obvi ous
probl ems or motor f ai l ures. Adopti ng a proacti ve, systems-
Fstab||sh|ng a Notor Nanagamant Program
Al though most i ndustri al f aci l i ti es rel y heavi l y on motor
systems to mai ntai n or support producti on, these systems
are of ten overl ooked as manageabl e assets. A f ormal motor
management program expands on the assessment acti vi ti es
descri bed i n Assessi ng Motor
strategi es that support proacti ve, cost-ef f ecti ve pl anni ng.
These strategi es i ncl ude i nsti tuti ng repai r/repl ace and
purchasi ng pol i ci es, establ i shi ng a motor i nventory, tracki ng
motor l i f e, creati ng a spares i nventory, and establ i shi ng
these strategi es can be used, as appropri ate, i n a motor
management program.
program i ncl ude greater motor rel i abi l i ty, i mproved overal l
system perf ormance, and l ower energy costs. Addi ti onal
i nf ormati on on establ i shi ng a motor management pl an, such
as a gui debook ti tl ed Energy Management for Motor -Dr i ven
Systems, can be f ound on the I TP Web si te at www.eere.
lustitutiug a Repair/Replace Polic]
When a motor f ai l s, getti ng i t back i n servi ce i s of ten a
pri ori ty, especi al l y i f the motor i s essenti al or cri ti cal to a
producti on process. However, al though a f ormal repai r/
repl ace pol i cy can reduce i nconsi stenci es i n motor repl ace/
repai r deci si ons, many f aci l i ti es do not have one.
An i ndustri al user has two opti ons when deal i ng wi th an
el ectri c motor f ai l ure: (1) repl ace the exi sti ng motor wi th
shop. Several f actors need to be taken i nto consi derati on
when deci di ng between these two opti ons. One f actor i s
whether a motor i s meeti ng the pl ant s current needs. For
exampl e, i n producti on f aci l i ti es, systems of ten change as a
resul t of capaci ty expansi ons, product redesi gns, advances
al so change. Thus, i n some cases, a motor f ai l ure can be
an opportuni ty to purchase a repl acement motor of a more
appropri ate type or si ze.
General gui del i nes on motor repl acement and repai r
opti ons can be f ound i n several resources. For exampl e,
Hor sePower Bul l eti n, devel oped by the I ndustri al
El ectrotechnol ogy Laboratory (now Advanced Energy)
wi th support f rom I TP, i s a motor management pol i cy gui de
f or NEMA Desi gns A and B up to 200 hp. Another usef ul
resource i s an El ectri cal Apparatus Servi ce Associ ati on
(EASA) bookl et, A Gui de To AC Motor Repai r And
Repl acement. The Motor Deci si ons Matter campai gn i s al so
a good resource. See Secti on 4, Where to Fi nd Hel p, f or
more i nf ormati on on these publ i cati ons
When the i ni ti al costs of motor repai r versus repl acement
are compared, the repai r opti on i s usual l y the l ess expensi ve
one. However, i nstead of maki ng a deci si on based sol el y
on the i ni ti al cost, users can exami ne both opti ons more
thoroughl y by means of a l i f e-cycl e cost anal ysi s. Thi s
anal ysi s takes i nto consi derati on two i mportant f actors
hours of operati on and el ectri ci ty costsas wel l as purchase
and repai r costs. For exampl e, suppose a hypotheti cal 100-
18 years at a cost of $0.075 per ki l owatt-hour (kWh). I n that
case, el ectri ci ty costs represent approxi matel y 95% of the
motor s l i f eti me operati ng costs.
lustitutiug a Purchasiug Polic]
A motor purchasi ng pol i cy accompl i shes several key
obj ecti ves:

motor i s chosen f or each appl i cati on

NEMA Premi um motors, when appropri ate

based on l i f e-cycl e costs.
To be eff ecti ve, the pol i cy must be supported by
management and di ssemi nated to al l those who regul arl y
make motor-rel ated deci si ons. Several sampl e pol i ci es are
avai l abl e. NEMA s
covers many desi gn
cri teri a as wel l as materi al and mechani cal consi derati ons.
The condensed versi on i s avai l abl e f ree of charge at www.
nema.org under Standards.
Evaluatiug Notor Repair Facilities
be real i zed onl y i f the repai r resul ts i n a sl i ght devi ati on,
Assurance of thi s resul t can be obtai ned by researchi ng
prospecti ve motor servi ce centers.
control advantages si mi l ar to those gai ned when f aci l i ti es
eval uate vendors and suppl i ers of thei r parts and materi al s.
However, eval uati ng a f aci l i ty after a motor f ai l ure can
resul t i n a costl y l oss of producti on ti me. The recommended
practi ce i s to eval uate repai r f aci l i ti es i n advance. Thi s can
i ts customers expect.
The ti p sheet i n Appendi x B ti tl ed Model Repai r
devel oped by Washi ngton State Uni versi ty to provi de
Rebui l di ng, whi ch was devel oped by the El ectri cal
Apparatus Servi ce Associ ati on (EASA), and El ectr i c
whi ch was devel oped by
the Bonnevi l l e Power Admi ni strati on. Secti on 4, Where
to Fi nd Hel p, provi des more i nf ormati on about these
publ i cati ons.
Al ong wi th anal yzi ng cost i ssues i n order to make a motor
i mportant consi derati on. The Ser vi ce Center Eval uati on
Gui de
see Usi ng the Servi ce Center
Eval uati on Gui de. Thi s gui de di scusses the attri butes that a
motor user shoul d l ook f or i n a motor repai r servi ce center,
and i t provi des a checkl i st to hel p the user perf orm the
eval uati on. The gui de can be accessed f rom the I TP Web
Other sources of motor repai r i nf ormati on i ncl ude
the EASA s Recommended Pr acti ce for the Repai r of
El ectr i cal Appar atus
contai n gui del i nes f or motor repai r servi ce shops, and
the recommended practi ce di scusses i n some detai l the
mi ni mum practi ces that motor servi ce shops shoul d f ol l ow.
I SO 9000 standards f or management practi ces wi th respect
Fi nd Hel p, f or more i nf ormati on.
Usiug NotorNaster+ for Notor 8]stem Nauagemeut
I TP hel ped to devel op the MotorMaster+ motor system
management sof tware to assi st i ndustry i n managi ng el ectri c
motor systems. MotorMaster+ can access perf ormance data
f rom nearl y 30,000 i ndustri al el ectri c motors and perf orm
several tasks to hel p motor users wi th system management.
anal ysi s of exi sti ng motors wi th possi bl e al ternati ves,
mai ntai ni ng a pl ant s el ectri c motor i nventory, keepi ng a
hi stori cal record of motor mai ntenance, and cal cul ati ng the
l i f e-cycl e costs of a motor proj ect.
compare the l i f e-cycl e costs of potenti al repl acements wi th
the cost of a typi cal repai r. Al though motor repai r costs vary
consi derabl y, MotorMaster+ mi ni mi zes some uncertai nti es
by i ncorporati ng the expected operati ng l i f e of the motor
and other operati onal vari abl es.
The el ectri c motor database i ncl udes al l NEMA and some
I nternati onal El ectrotechni cal Commi ssi on (I EC) metri c
motor types f rom 1 to 4,000 hp that operate at speeds of
900, 1200, 1800, and 3600 rpm at rati ngs up to 6600 vol ts
(V). To ensure consi stency among vari ous manuf acturers,
MotorMaster+ was devel oped to achi eve f our basi c
obj ecti ves:

repl acement deci si ons

an appl i cati on

management program.
Purchasi ng
el ectri c motors i s a common and recurri ng procurement
acti vi ty i n most l arge i ndustri al pl ants. The need to repl ace
one or several motors i s al so an opportuni ty to i mprove the
the l i f e-cycl e cost of an el ectri c motor.
Usi ng MotorMaster+, users can create a l i st of motors that
appl i cati on. MotorMaster+ can al so compare an exi sti ng
motor economi cal l y wi th other motors avai l abl e i n the
market, as wel l as compare the cost of a new motor wi th
opti on.
Two methods can be used to perf orm a comparati ve
compare two motors at a ti me. MotorMaster+ cal cul ates
annual energy and demand costs and determi nes the si mpl e
payback peri od. I f the user wants to perf orm a more i n-
depth anal ysi s, MotorMaster+ wi l l perf orm a l i f e-cycl e
anal ysi s on al l motor and rewi nd opti ons.
Tr ack M otor L ifetimes and L ife-Cycle Costs. Al though
many economi c deci si ons are based on i ni ti al capi tal costs,
hurdl e rates, and/or payback peri ods, a l i f e-cycl e anal ysi s
presents a more real i sti c vi ew of the i nvestment val ue.
The l i f e-cycl e modul e i n MotorMaster+ enabl es users to
el ectri ci ty use, and the expected l i f eti me of the proj ect.
The program cal cul ates l i f e-cycl e costs usi ng vari ous user-
establ i shed scenari os.
For exampl e, the l i f e-cycl e modul e depreci ates capi tal
between the strai ght l i ne, sum-of -year-di gi ts, and doubl e-
decl i ni ng bal ance methods to account f or depreci ati ng
assets.
Li ke a typi cal l i f e-cycl e anal ysi s, MotorMaster+ accounts
i nstal l ati on, operati on and mai ntenance, and f uel costs,
al ong wi th di ff erent i nterest and tax rates. I n addi ti on,
MotorMaster+ al l ows the user to i nput di ff erent f uel cost
escal ati on scenari os f or the predi cted l i f eti me of the proj ect.
MotorMaster+ al so al l ows the user to i nput detai l s about
Al l of these parameters are i ntegrated i nto the l i f e-cycl e cost
anal ysi s accordi ng to the l i f eti mes of the proposed proj ects,
l i f e, the sal vage val ue, and the scrap val ue.
NotorNaster+ luteruatioual
Some users mi ght want to use the MotorMaster+
I nternati onal sof tware rather than MotorMaster+. Thi s
program i ncl udes many of the capabi l i ti es and f eatures
of MotorMaster+ but al l ows users to eval uate repai r/
repl acement opti ons on a broader range of motors. The
user can conduct anal yses i n di f f erent currenci es, cal cul ate
def aul ts, and determi ne best avai l abl e motors. Thi s tool
can be operated i n Engl i sh, Spani sh, and French.
I mprove M otor Selection M ethods. Al though l ow l i f e-
cycl e costs are an i mportant f actor i n sel ecti ng a motor
repl acement opti on, several other f actors shoul d be
motors servi ce f actor, etc. I n some cases, these f actors may
l i f e-cycl e costs.
See Secti on 4, Where to Fi nd Hel p, f or more on how to
obtai n MotorMaster+ and MotorMaster+ I nternati onal .
Estaolishiug a 8pares luveutor]
a spares i nventory wi l l guarantee that the proper motor i s
avai l abl e when needed. Thi s i nventory hel ps to ensure that
deci si ons are based on eval uati on and pl anni ng rather than
downti me associ ated wi th unexpected motor f ai l ure. Motor
sal es and servi ce provi ders are steppi ng up ef f orts to work
wi th customers i n thi s area. Customi zed programs mi ght
i ncl ude stocki ng, storage, mai ntenance, and/or tracki ng
agreements.

Prov|d|ng 8as|c Na|ntananca
Proper mai ntenance of motor and dri ve systems provi des
i ncreased rel i abi l i ty, l ower l i f e-cycl e costs, and better use of
assets.
Motor systems are of ten essenti al to i ndustri al f aci l i ty
operati ons, so a motor f ai l ure can cause costl y producti on
del ays. By mi ni mi zi ng the ri sk of unpl anned downti me,
eff ecti ve mai ntenance programs can hel p pl ants avoi d costl y
di srupti ons i n producti on.
Preveutative Naiuteuauce
I nspections. I nspecti ons of motor and dri ve system
components shoul d be based on such f actors as run ti me,
on. Of ten, these i nspecti ons can and shoul d be combi ned
wi th cl eani ng to remove contami nants f rom the motor.
Moi sture or contami nated oi l on motor wi ndi ngs, or
both, accel erates motor wear by reduci ng the l i f e of
the i nsul ati on. Moi sture di rectl y reduces the di el ectri c
strength of i nsul ati on, i ncreasi ng the ri sk of sudden f ai l ure.
Contami nated oi l al so degrades the di el ectri c strength
and encourages the accumul ati on of contami nants. Si nce
wi ndi ngs shi f t around i n reacti on to thermal and magneti c
f orces, contami nants on the wi ndi ng i nsul ati on create
abrasi ve wear that can l ead to earl y i nsul ati on f ai l ure.
Because of potenti al probl ems wi th the brush assembl i es,
mai ntenance. Brush probl ems i ncl ude poor contact,
mi sal i gnment, and sparki ng. These probl ems can l ead
sl i p ri ng surf ace on the motor shaf t, an even greater
rel ati vel y i nexpensi ve, i f the sl i p ri ng surf ace becomes
pi tted or out-of -round because the brushes are operati ng
poorl y, repai rs can be costl y and ti me i ntensi ve.
The causes of these probl ems i ncl ude poor i nstal l ati on and
mai ntenance practi ces as wel l as contami nati on. Contami -
nati on i s parti cul arl y probl emati c i n brush assembl i es i n
whi ch si l i cone-based i nsul ati on i s used. The off -gassi ng
that occurs f rom the i nsul ati on as i t i s heated duri ng opera-
see whether the cause i s exposure to si l i cone materi al s.
Tabl e 1 contai ns a l i st of basi c i nspecti on and mai ntenance
tasks and the recommended i nterval s f or perf ormi ng them.
I nsulation Resistance Checks. Measuri ng the motor
wi ndi ng i nsul ati on resi stance can i ndi cate cl eanl i ness and
moi sture l evel s and hel p to determi ne the potenti al f or
i nsul ati on f ai l ure. Thi s test i s perf ormed by appl yi ng a
vol tage (typi cal l y 500 or 1000 V) to the motor wi ndi ngs
and measuri ng the resi stance f rom the i nsul ati on to ground.
Expected resi stances shoul d be on the order of megohms as
outl i ned i n I nsti tute of El ectri cal and El ectroni cs Engi neers
(I EEE) Standard 43-2000 avai l abl e on the I EEE Web si te
at www.i eee.org. A megohmmeter i s used to measure the
i nsul ati ng resi stance of el ectri cal materi al s. Megohmmeter
checks are commonl y done on i n-servi ce motors, motors
that have been i dl e f or awhi l e, and motors that mi ght be
wet. Wet i nsul ati on i s a common cause of l ow i nsul ati on
resi stance. Energi zi ng motors wi th weak or wet i nsul ati on
can l ead to catastrophi c f ai l ure of the motor. Theref ore, a
l ow resi stance readi ng shoul d be i nvesti gated f urther. Then,
the i nsul ati on resi stance shoul d be remeasured to see i f
moi sture was the probl em or i f the i nsul ati on i tsel f i s weak.
The i nsul ati on shoul d be checked bef ore more extreme
measurement methods are used, such as a hi -pot (hi gh-
potenti al ) test. Si nce hi -pot tests expose the i nsul ati on to
much hi gher vol tages, an i nsul ati on resi stance check can
i ndi cate whether such a measurement wi l l cause i nsul ati on
damage. See I EEE Standard 43-2000, I EEE Recommended
Pr acti ce for Testi ng I nsul ati on Resi stance of Rotati ng
Machi ner y, on the I EEE Web si te at www.i eee.org. When
the i nsul ati on has been exposed to moi sture, an i nsul ati on
bef ore conducti ng addi ti onal tests.
A hi -pot test measures the di el ectri c strength of wi ndi ng
i nsul ati on and can determi ne whether the i nsul ati on has
a weakness that may cause f ai l ure when the motor i s
operati ng. A hi gh-pot test typi cal l y appl i es more than
1000 V to the wi ndi ngs f or new motors, and 60% of thi s
cal cul ated val ue f or used motors. General l y, thi s test i s used
on new motors, but i t may be recommended f or motors that
have been i dl e f or l ong peri ods. Si nce the test i tsel f can
damage the i nsul ati on, the manuf acturer s gui del i nes shoul d
be caref ul l y f ol l owed.
Balance and Alignment Checks. Li ke most rotati ng
machi nery, motors can be seri ousl y aff ected by dynami c
unbal ances. The causes of bal ance probl ems i ncl ude
overhung l oads, poor al i gnment between the motor and the
on the motor f an or the motor shaf t. Large, overhung l oads
so i t i s i mportant to desi gn the motor/dri ven-l oad assembl y
properl y i n overhung l oad appl i cati ons i n order to prevent
the devel opment of bal ance and al i gnment probl ems.
Al i gnment probl ems can resul t f rom a poorl y done
i nstal l ati on, f oundati on movement, or beari ng system
wear. For exampl e, many i ni ti al al i gnment probl ems can
be correctl y al i gned to a pump bef ore the system pi pi ng i s
motor/pump shaf t system. Si mi l arl y, wel di ng tends to di stort
l i mi t thi s di storti on, any machi nery al i gnments shoul d be
checked af ter al l the wel di ng i s compl eted.
Tab|a 1. 0ommon |nspact|on Tasks
|ntarva| Act|on 8amarks
waak|y luspect commutator aud orushes look for sparkiug, seatiug coutact, evideuce of coutamiuatiou*
0heck oil level iu oeariugs
0heck oil riugs
luspect the shaft for sigus of oil leakage
luspect starter, switches, aud fuses
0heck the start-up time for the motor
Fvary months 0leau the motor thoroughl] Blow out dirt (25-80 psig air}; wipe dowu commutator aud orushes
0heck orushes luspect for wear; verif] proper positiou aud pressure
luspect orush holders
0heck oil qualit] iu sleeve oeariugs
0heck grease iu autifrictiou oeariugs
0heck operatiug speed
Verif] eud-pla]
0heck electrical couuectious
0heck euclosure
0heck fouudatiou couuectious look for sigus of grout degradatiou or looseuiug of shims
0heck iusulatiou resistauce
Annua||y Regrease autifrictiou oeariugs
0heck air gap
0heck oeariug clearauces
0leau uudercut slots iu the commutator
* Never use silicone-based insulation or leads in a motor with brushes.
as a resul t of the added beari ng l oads. I n pumps, severe
I n addi ti on, rotati ng i mbal ances can be caused by the dri ven
i n a corrosi ve envi ronment can become unbal anced as the
materi al s i n the f an bl ade degrade. I n some appl i cati ons, the
motor f an i tsel f can degrade, causi ng a damagi ng i mbal ance
condi ti on.
Motor/f oundati on i nterf aces that devel op sof t-f oot probl ems
can al so have bal ance and al i gnment probl ems. Soft foot
ref ers to the gaps that devel op between a motor s mounti ng
f oot and the f oundati on. I t i s of ten the resul t of materi al
l oss around the mounti ng hardware that al l ows movement
of the motor or dri ve assembl y under l oad. As the motor or
can produce beari ng probl ems. To avoi d thi s probl em,
the condi ti on of the mounti ng f eet shoul d be peri odi cal l y
i nspected. I f the grout i s damaged or i f the shi ms or
mounti ng bol ts have come l oose, the probl em shoul d be
corrected and the motor/dri ve al i gnment rechecked.
Further i nf ormati on on el ectri c motor mai ntenance can be
f ound i n the EASA publ i cati on, How To Get The Most From
Your El ectr i c Motor s, whi ch can be ordered f rom the EASA
onl i ne catal og at www.easa.com.
Predictive Naiuteuauce
Predi cti ve mai ntenance programs are desi gned to i ncrease
the rel i abi l i ty of motor and dri ve systems. These methods
are i ntended to i denti f y probl ems that are devel opi ng but
devel opi ng probl em i mproves the engi neer s abi l i ty to
pl an the repai r ef f ecti vel y. The most ef f ecti ve predi cti ve
mai ntenance tool s f or motors i ncl ude vi brati on anal ysi s,
l ubri cant anal ysi s, i nsul ati on resi stance measurement (see
opportuni ty), i nf rared (I R) scanni ng, and el ectri cal motor
di agnosti cs.
Vibr ation Analysis. Commerci al vi brati on anal yzers read
and eval uate the vi brati on si gnature of a motor or other
rotati ng machi nery. Recordi ng the vi brati on characteri sti cs
at di f f erent poi nts i n a motor s operati ng l i f e can reveal
trends that i ndi cate devel opi ng probl ems. These devi ces
are parti cul arl y usef ul i n determi ni ng emergi ng beari ng
probl ems. Vi brati on anal yzers can al so detect unbal ances
and mi sal i gnments i n the shaf t system due to l oose
coupl i ngs, motor f an probl ems, etc. Vi brati on anal yzers
are al so usef ul i n eval uati ng the condi ti on of rotor bars i n
l oose wi l l di spl ay vi brati on characteri sti cs of a certai n
Lubr icant Analysis. A l ubri cant anal ysi s can i ndi cate the
exi stence or the devel opment of a beari ng probl em as wel l
as determi ne whether the l ubri cant shoul d be repl aced.
Lubri cant anal ysi s can al so i ndi cate the presence of hi gh-
temperature beari ng probl ems. Lubri cants are usual l y
changed permanentl y by heat. Thi s property i s usef ul
i n detecti ng probl ems, especi al l y i ntermi ttent ones. For
conventi onal methods unl ess that l oad condi ti on happens to
occur duri ng the measurement.
I nfr ared Scanning. I nfrared (I R) scanni ng (thermography)
i s an eff ecti ve method of determi ni ng the condi ti on of
i nsul ati on and the i ntegri ty of a connecti on. I R scanni ng
eval uates the thermal i mage of a body to determi ne i ts
temperature characteri sti cs. Beari ngs that begi n to run hot
or connecti ons that become weak and create more resi stance
wi l l show up as hot spots on an I R scan. I n motors,
weakened i nsul ati on may show up as a hi gh-temperature
area on the motor stator. Li ke vi brati on anal ysi s, measuri ng
the temperature of a motor at successi ve i nterval s hel ps
to i denti f y trends. Mi sal i gned or unbal anced coupl i ngs
wi l l al so show up as hot duri ng an I R scan. To avoi d f al se
posi ti ves, I R scanni ng shoul d be perf ormed by someone
trai ned i n thermography.
Electr ical M otor Diagnostics. El ectri cal motor di agnosti cs
(EMD) i s ef f ecti ve i n eval uati ng the condi ti on of the el ectri c
motor ci rcui t. There are several EMD methods. Motor
ci rcui t anal ysi s, or MCA, provi des i nf ormati on about the
wi ndi ng and ground i nsul ati on system and the motor rotor
anal ysi s, or MCSA, provi des a f ast Fouri er transf orm (FFT)
spectra and demodul ated spectra of current i n order to detect
An el ectri cal si gnature anal ysi s, or ESA, provi des an FFT
spectra of both the vol tage and current of the motor ci rcui t
i n order to detect current-rel ated f aul ts and suppl y f aul ts
Naiuteuauce of 8tored or ldle Notors
appl i cati ons, shoul d be acti vated peri odi cal l y to keep the
beari ng surf aces l ubri cated and to prevent probl ems such
as f al se bri nel l i ng. Fal se br i nel l i ng ref ers to the i ndentati on
of the races or rotati ng el ements (or both) of an anti f ri cti on
beari ng (e.g., bal l beari ngs, rol l er beari ngs). Thi s of ten
occurs i n motor beari ngs that remai n i dl e f or l ong peri ods
but that are sti l l subj ected to external vi brati ons.
Keepi ng a beari ng i n a stati c posi ti on f or a l ong ti me resul ts
surf aces. The vi brati ons common to machi nery areas
promote a bri nel l i ng eff ect at these poi nts of contact. The
i ndentati ons are usual l y smal l . However, when a motor i s
operati ng and the beari ngs are pl aced under a l oad, these
surf ace i mperf ecti ons can l ead to poor beari ng perf ormance
and shorten the motor s operati ng l i f e.
To prevent bri nel l i ng duri ng shi pment, the motor shaf t
shoul d be securel y l ocked. To prevent bri nel l i ng duri ng
storage, the shaf t shoul d be rotated peri odi cal l y as part of a
preventi ve mai ntenance program. To prevent bri nel l i ng af ter
i nstal l ati on, the motor shoul d be operated peri odi cal l y.

Sa|act|ng tha 8|ght Notor
An essenti al component of cost-ef f ecti ve system
perf ormance i s properl y matchi ng a motor type to i ts
operati ng characteri sti cs and the basi c components of a
motor system. Motors are f ai rl y si mpl e devi ces that rel y on
some basi c pri nci pl es of el ectri ci ty and magneti sm. Among
the more i mportant pri nci pl es are that an el ectri c current
of the current and the magneti c properti es of the materi al i n
motor shaf t.
Notor 0haracteristics aud 0ousideratious
Several basi c operati ng characteri sti cs are i mportant i n
properl y speci f yi ng and operati ng a motor and dri ve system.
The pri nci pal operati ng characteri sti cs are horsepower,
sl i p, power f actor, and operati ng temperature.
Hor sepower . The horsepower of a motor i s the product of
of operati ng condi ti ons. However, to correctl y speci f y a
the motor horsepower to the l oad horsepower. The speed and
of the motor to respond to l oad changes are i mportant f actors
i n determi ni ng how wel l a motor performs.
The servi ce f actor i s a mul ti pl i er that i ndi cates the
percentage of horsepower (or other namepl ate rati ng
wi thout causi ng f ai l ure under certai n condi ti ons; common
servi ce f actor val ues are 1.1 and 1.15. Rel yi ng on the
servi ce f actor rati ng of the motor under conti nuous-duty
condi ti ons i s usual l y not recommended. I n general , the
servi ce f actor rati ng appl i es to short-term or occasi onal
overl oads.
Operati ng a motor above i ts rated horsepower can shorten
the l i f e of i ts i nsul ati on. As a gui del i ne, motor l i f e i s
reduced by one-hal f i f the motor i s operated conti nuousl y
at the servi ce f actor l evel . Operati ng a motor at 1.15 rated
l oad i ncreases the wi ndi ng temperature by about 20C
(dependi ng on f actors such as the encl osure type, speed,
and el evati on), and a motor s i nsul ati on l i f e i s hal ved f or
every 10C i ncrease i n the heat at whi ch the motor runs.
The addi ti onal heat i n the wi ndi ngs al so transl ates to hi gher
beari ng temperatures and can i mpact l ubri cant l i f e as wel l .
More i nf ormati on on the servi ce f actor i s avai l abl e f rom
EASA; see Secti on 4, Where to Fi nd Hel p.
such as vol tage i mbal ance, overvol tage, and undervol tage.
the uncertai nti es associ ated wi th determi ni ng an actual
servi ce l oad, a good rul e of thumb i s to si ze motors so that
they operate at about 75% of rated l oad. Thi s al so usual l y
Speed
systems to provi de eff ecti ve speed control . Di rect current
of dc motors can be up to 20:1. They can operate as l ow
as 5%-7% of the base speed of the motor, and some can
operate even at 0 rpm.
Some ac motors, such as wound rotor motors, al so off er
eff ecti ve speed control by control l i ng the resi stance of the
rotor ci rcui ts. The speed rati os of these motors can al so
be up to 20:1. To adj ust the resi stance of the rotor ci rcui ts,
connect to external resi stance banks.
rel ati vel y l arge resi stance banks, such as sal t water rheostats
that rel y on pl ates i mmersed i n sal t water to provi de el ectri c
resi stance and heat di ssi pati on. More advanced system
desi gns al l ow wound rotor motors to regenerate power
extracted f rom the rotor ci rcui t. Thi s regenerated power
can be used to dri ve another motor or can be sent back i nto
the speed adj ustment process; however, they al so i ncrease
system. Unl ess the energy pul l ed f rom the rotor ci rcui t i s
recaptured, the l osses associ ated wi th operati on at sl ow
speeds can i ncrease a pl ant s energy costs.
Al ternati ng current i nducti on motors can be used i n
many appl i cati ons wi th adj ustabl e speed dri ves. The most
and the most common VFD i s the pul se wi dth modul ati on
(PWM) type. These dri ves are commerci al l y avai l abl e at
f rom 0 to 120 Hz and can be used to operate motors over a
wi de range of characteri sti cs.
Torque
starti ng or l ocked-rotor, f ul l -l oad, pul l -up (usual l y the l ow-
i s that devel oped by the motor at zero speed. Ful l -l oad
-
ate bef ore stal l i ng. Of ten, thi s i s several ti mes greater than
Load Duty Cycle. A system l oad duty cycl e (LDC) i s
hel pf ul i n choosi ng the ri ght motor and motor control
seasons, and product mi x. Theref ore, some motors operate
normal l y near thei r f ul l -l oad rati ng, whi l e others operate
normal l y at smal l porti ons of thei r f ul l -l oad rati ng. LDCs
pl ot the l oad on a motor over ti me, as shown i n Fi gure 13.
A system wi th a constant l oad can probabl y use a standard
motor wi thout a control system. A varyi ng l oad may be
served best by a motor desi gned to be used wi th a VFD, a
standard motor wi th another speed control devi ce (such as
an eddy current cl utch), or a mul ti pl e-speed motor.
i mproved i n the l ast 20 years, l argel y as a resul t of the
eff orts of motor manuf acturers, wi th assi stance f rom DOE.
(See, f or exampl e,
Handbook, U.S. Department of Energy, 1993 at www.
wbdg.org/ccb/DOE/TECH/ce0384.pdf ). More recent motor
Pol i cy Act (EPAct), whi ch went i nto eff ect i n October
1997 and pertai ns to the most common types and si zes of
had to modi f y the desi gn of motors and use better materi al s;
thi s has resul ted i n sl i ght changes i n motor operati ng
types are i ncl uded i n Appendi x D of thi s sourcebook.
Al though the i ni ti al costs of motors have i ncreased 10%
hi gh-run-ti me appl i cati ons have resul ted i n very f avorabl e
payback peri ods.
The enactment of EPAct has had several eff ects on the
the desi gns of many of thei r Desi gn A and B model s. These
changes have at ti mes i ncl uded reduci ng the resi stance of
the rotor and stator ci rcui ts, usi ng el ectri cal grade steel
wi th i mproved magneti c characteri sti cs f or the stator and
rotor l ami nati ons to reduce core l osses, and redesi gni ng the
cool i ng f an to decrease f an wi ndage l osses. Other changes
have i ncl uded desi gni ng motors wi th a smal l er sl i p (hi gher
0 20 40 O0 80 100
45
40
85
80
25
20
10
15
5
speed) and usi ng l ower l oss core i ron. Losses vary among
motors of di ff erent si zes and desi gns; Tabl e 2 shows some
typi cal ranges.
general l y range f rom 85% to 97% at f ul l l oad. The pri mary
EPAct Desi gn A and B motors i s of ten rel ati vel y constant
between 70% and 80% of rated l oad and drops sl i ghtl y at
50% and 70% of rated f ul l l oad. At l oads bel ow 40% of
Sl i ghtl y oversi zi ng a motor (up to 25%) can actual l y
the reduced power f actor.
NEM A Premium
The NEMA
Premi um

than the ones establ i shed by EPAct. The NEMA Premi um
si ngl e-speed, pol yphase, 1 to 500 hp, 2-, 4-, and 6-pol e
each motor type, si ze, and speed.

motors. These characteri sti cs are shown i n Fi gure 15.
Design A. Thi s type of motor i s used pri mari l y i n speci al
appl i cati ons f or whi ch a comparabl e Desi gn B motor woul d
hi gher starti ng currents and l ess sl i p than Desi gn B motors.
hi gh, transi ent i ncreases i n l oad. I t can be a manuf acturer s
i nj ecti on mol di ng machi nes, crushers, and ai r compressors.
Tab|a 2. Sourcas of Notor Lossas
Frictiou aud wiudage 5 - 15
0ore (lrou} losses 15 - 25
8tator (l
2
R} 25 - 40
Rotor (l
2
R} 15 - 25
8tra] load 10 - 20
Perceut Efficieuc]
Perceut Rated load
70 0 25 50 75 100
100
85
95
80
90
75
1000 hp
5000 hp
500 hp
100 hp
5 hp
50 hp
10 hp
Perceut of Full load Torque
Perceut Rated load
0 25 50 75 100
800
150
250
100
200
50
Figure 15. Tcrque and speed characteristics cf varicus
types cf mctcrs
locked Rotor Torque
(also 8tartup Torque}
Breakdowu Torque
0es|go 0
0es|go 0
0es|go A
0es|go 8
Design B. Thi s type of motor i s si mi l ar to a Desi gn A motor
and i s the most common typea true i ndustry workhorse.
I n f act, the operati ng characteri sti cs of Desi gn B motors are
of ten compared wi th those of other motor desi gns i n order
appl i cati ons are pumps, f ans, and ai r compressors.
Design C.
i s of ten used i n hi gh-i nerti a appl i cati ons. These motors are
Desi gn C motors are of ten sel ected f or appl i cati ons
di spl acement pumps and ref ri gerati on compressors of ten
properl y si zed Desi gn C motor woul d be more cost-
eff ecti ve. Typi cal appl i cati ons are materi al handl i ng systems
such as conveyors.
Design D.
hi gh sl i p characteri sti cs, rangi ng f rom 5% to 13%. These
motors are general l y used i n hi gh transi ent, cycl i cal l oad
appl i cati ons such as punch presses. Because of thei r hi gh
other cl asses. Oi l wel l pumps are of ten powered by Desi gn
D motors because the l oad i s cycl i c, and there i s a rel ati vel y
i n the cycl e. A hi gh-sl i p motor operates evenl y wi thi n thi s
the reduced el ectri cal stress on the system resul ti ng f rom
l ower current surges. Appl i cati ons i ncl ude systems wi th
sudden l oad changes, such as hoi sts and punch presses.
I t i s i mportant to determi ne the vol tage and encl osure
needed when speci f yi ng an i ndustri al motor. The vol tage
i s usual l y determi ned by the power avai l abl e i n the
pl ant s di stri buti on system. The encl osure type i s usual l y
exposure to moi sture, any harmf ul vapors present, and so on.
Voltage. The vol tage rati ng of a motor shoul d match the
power suppl y. Common motor vol tages are 115, 200, 230,
460, 575, 2300, and 4000 V. Motors are rel ati vel y sensi ti ve
to the power suppl y vol tage, but the motor vol tage of ten
does not preci sel y match the vol tage rati ng of the power
suppl y because of unanti ci pated vol tage drops i n the
di stri buti on system. Li ne vol tages can vary accordi ng to the
uti l i ty suppl y, pl ant l oads, power f actor eff ects, and the
perf ormance of the transf ormer. I t i s i mportant to understand
the ef f ects of these vari abl es on the operati on of a motor.
Decreasi ng the l i ne vol tage usual l y i ncreases the current
cases of l i ght l oads. Thi s hi gher current l evel generates
more heat and l osses i n the motor wi ndi ngs and decreases
vol tages wi l l shorten a motor s operati ng l i f e. To protect
agai nst potenti al damage caused by operati ng a motor at l ow
rel ay that de-energi zes the motor i n response to l ow vol tage
sags of ten experi ence probl ems caused by the acti vati on
of these undervol tage rel ays. Motors are al so subj ect to
transi ent vol tage events, such as surges and sags. These
events can be tri ggered by uti l i ty swi tchi ng or i n-pl ant
acti vi ti es such as the energi zati on of l arge l oads.
Li ne vol tage that i s hi gher than a motor s rati ng can
al so aff ect the motor s l i f e and perf ormance. Dependi ng
on the desi gn of the motor, overvol tage condi ti ons can
cause magneti c saturati on of the i ron core that can l ead to
overheati ng of the motor. However, f or vol tages up to 110%
mi ght actual l y i ncrease up to 1% as a resul t of the l ower
than 20%. Operati on at hi gh vol tage can al so decrease
the power f actor and i ncrease the operati ng speed. For
centri f ugal l oads such as pumps and f ans, the resul t can be
an i ncrease i n energy use.
Enclosure Type. The encl osure ref ers to the motor s
l evel of protecti on f rom i ts envi ronment. Tabl e 3 contai ns
a l i st of encl osure types. Because motors are sensi ti ve
to temperature, moi sture, and contami nants, the proper
encl osure must be sel ected i n order f or the motor to operate
properl y.
Bearings. Beari ngs are essenti al to the operati on of a motor.
When sel ecti ng a motor, i t i s i mportant to ensure that the
beari ngs are compati bl e wi th the l oad, temperature, and
envi ronmental condi ti ons. I n i ndustri al motor appl i cati ons,
the most common beari ng types are j ournal (sl eeve)
beari ngs and anti f ri cti on beari ngs. Anti f ri cti on beari ngs
rel y on the acti on of rol l i ng el ements such as bal l s or
rol l ers to mi ni mi ze f ri cti on whi l e supporti ng the l oad.
the metal surf aces and thus reduce f ri cti on. Si nce di f f erent
i t i s i mportant to f ol l ow the manuf acturer s gui del i nes on
f or VFD appl i cati ons to protect agai nst beari ng damage
f rom the shaf t vol tage.
Compatibility with I nver ter Dr ives. I n VFD appl i cati ons,
especi al l y those that use PWM control s, motor wi ndi ngs
are exposed to short-durati on, hi gh-vol tage spi kes that can
shorten thei r l i f e. These pul ses are caused by swi tchi ng i n
desi gned to handl e the stresses of servi ce wi th PWM
i nverters, and most motor manuf acturers of f er them.
I nsul ati on and wi ndi ng pl acement are al so i mproved. Many
manuf acturers al so of f er i nverter-f ri endl y i nsul ati on i n thei r
0ommou Proolems
Motors can experi ence both mechani cal and el ectri cal
damage. Mechani cal damage i ncl udes beari ng f ai l ure,
and more than hal f of al l motor f ai l ures i nvol ve beari ngs.
I n severe cases, beari ngs can sei ze as a resul t of a l oss of
l ubri cati on or entrai nment of sol i d contami nants. Because
beari ng f ai l ure usual l y resul ts f rom the breakdown of
l ubri cati on, users shoul d caref ul l y consi der the servi ce
motor. Sel ecti ng the proper beari ngs depends on the l oad,
temperature, envi ronmental condi ti ons, speed, coupl i ng
starts and stops.
El ectri cal damage has many causes and i s evi dent i n an
i nsul ati on f ai l ure. An i nsul ati on f ai l ure usual l y resul ts i n
a f aul t, such as a ground or a short. Groundi ng probl ems
occur when a wi ndi ng di rectl y contacts a ground path.
Faul ts can occur between wi ndi ngs of di ff erent phases or
between di f f erent wi ndi ng turns on the same phase or coi l .
The causes of i nsul ati on f ai l ure i ncl ude the hi gh
temperatures caused by a current overl oad and vol tages
that exceed the di el ectri c strength of the i nsul ati on. Even
under normal condi ti ons, wi ndi ng i nsul ati on ages over
ti me; however, heat accel erates thi s breakdown rate. Under
normal operati ng condi ti ons, most i nsul ati on cl asses are
rated f or a certai n operati ng temperature (whi ch vari es
accordi ng to the i nsul ati on cl ass) and a certai n operati ng l i f e
(typi cal l y 20,000 hours). Several condi ti ons can cause hi gh
wi ndi ng temperatures, i ncl udi ng l ow vol tage condi ti ons
and hi gh motor l oads. Condi ti ons that i mpai r the di ssi pati on
of heatsuch as the contami nants that can bui l d up on
wi ndi ngs, motor surf aces, and f an bl adescan al so i ncrease
wi ndi ng temperatures by reduci ng the amount of heat
transf erred away f rom the motor.
The i nduced beari ng currents associ ated wi th PWM dri ves
can al so degrade beari ngs. Thi s i ssue i s di scussed f urther i n
the
Dri ves.
Us|ng Var|ab|a Fraquancy 0r|vas
l ower system energy costs, i mproved system rel i abi l i ty,
of a motor s operati ng speed. Hi stori cal l y, dc motors have
been used i n these appl i cati ons because of thei r eff ecti ve
speed control characteri sti cs. However, as a resul t of
i mprovements i n power semi conductor technol ogy, a recent
trend i n i ndustry i s to use VFDs wi th ac motors.
Some competi ng ASD technol ogi es, such as hydraul i c
coupl i ngs and eddy current dri ves, off er si mi l ar advantages
i n terms of speed control . However, VFDs have substanti al
advantages i n compari son to other speed control opti ons.
motor users can bypass them f or mai ntenance or repai rs
wi thout havi ng to take the motor out of servi ce. But they
are not recommended f or al l motor/dri ve appl i cati ons, so
understandi ng thei r perf ormance and appl i cati on i s essenti al
i n deci di ng whether to use them.
Tab|a 3. 0ommon Typas of Fnc|osuras
Fnc|osura Typa 0haractar|st|cs
0peu Drip-proof 0au withstaud drippiug
liquids up to 15 off vertical
8plash-proof 0au withstaud splash-
iug liquids up to 100 off
vertical
0uarded Veutilatiou opeuiugs are
less thau iu. wide
Exteruall]
veutilated
Veutilatiou is provided o] a
separate motor-driveu fau
Totall] Euclosed Uuveutilated Does uot coutaiu a meaus
of exterual cooliug
Fau-cooled 0outaius au iutegral fau
Explosiou-proof will uot iguite au exterual
gas
waterproof Excludes leakage
0ommou Applicatious
VFDs are used i n a wi de range of appl i cati ons, i ncl udi ng
and machi ni ng and f abri cati on processes. VFDs can be
i ncorporated i nto cl osed-l oop control systems, and thei r
speed adj ustment rati os are si mi l ar to those of other speed
control systems. The pri nci pal advantage of VFDs i s
savi ngs i n many motor systems. I f they are used i n pl ace of
mechani cal dri ve opti ons, VFDs can al so i mprove system
l ess mai ntenance because they have f ewer components.
Fluid Systems.
systems and systems served by centri f ugal pumps, there i s
automati cal l y.
motors; however, al l exi sti ng motors shoul d be eval uated f or
must be changed, other system components can be l ef t
i ntact, whi ch makes thi s upgrade rel ati vel y nondi srupti ve.
and reduce the stress on the enti re system. Unl i ke other
VFDs reduce the amount of energy i mparted to the system.
Thi s al so reduces stress on the pi pi ng system and support
structures.
M ater ial Handling Systems. I n materi al handl i ng
appl i cati ons, VFDs al l ow better control of transport, mi xi ng,
and packagi ng processes. Conventi onal control processes
use bypass or on-off control s to modul ate the movement
of work-i n-process. However, bypass methods si mi l ar to
methods tend to i mpose stresses on the system as materi al
i s abruptl y stopped, then started. I n contrast, VFDs al l ow
the speed of a process or a f eedstream to be sl owed or
accel erated accordi ng to an automated f eedback si gnal . Thi s
For exampl e, VFDs are of ten used to control the speed of
the wi ndi ng machi nes i n al umi num mi l l s and paper pl ants.
Usi ng a si gnal that di rectl y measures l i ne speed, a VFD
control s the rotati on of the wi nder to mai ntai n a constant
process speed. I n contrast, usi ng a brake to control the
wi ndi ng speed resul ts i n a l oss of energy. Usi ng a brake al so
M achining and Fabr ication. Most machi ni ng and
f abri cati on appl i cati ons use constant speed ac motors. The
operati ng l i f e of tool s and cutti ng bi ts i s hi ghl y sensi ti ve
to how wel l and constantl y the cutti ng speed and pressure
are mai ntai ned duri ng machi ni ng operati ons. I n thi s regard,
VFDs off er several advantages. Conventi onal speed control
opti ons use gears or pul l eys to mai ntai n the cutti ng speed
wi thi n a certai n range; however, these devi ces have l i mi ted
machi ne i s bei ng set up f or the task. I n contrast, VFDs can
control the cutti ng speed conti nuousl y duri ng the machi ne
operati ons, VFDs can i mprove the process control and the
speed of producti on, demonstrati ng that energy savi ngs are
Alteruatives
There are two pri nci pal ways to adj ust the speed of a motor/
dri ve system:

change the speed rati o.
Hi stori cal l y, when di rect control of the motor speed was
ac motors. Al though each type has advantages, they al so
For exampl e, dc motors are rel ati vel y expensi ve, need more
Wound rotor motors add resi stance to the rotor ci rcui t f or
compl ex recovery system i s used.
Usi ng an i ntermedi ate speed adj ustment devi ce, such as
a geari ng system or an adj ustabl e pi tch pul l ey system,
adds another component to the motor/dri ve system. These
components i ncrease the ri sk of f ai l ure and other probl ems.
M echanical. Gear systems al l ow di f f erent speed rati os
al l ow shi f ti ng between di ff erent gears to achi eve di ff erent
speed rati os, these systems are l i mi ted to di screte speed
changes that of ten i nterrupt a machi ne s operati on. Thus, the
Bel t systems are si mi l ar to gear systems i n that vari ous
combi nati ons of pul l eys can be used to achi eve di ff erent
and repl aci ng one or more pul l eys. Thi s tends to be hi ghl y
systems al l ow speed rati os to be conti nuousl y adj usted. The
pul l eys i n these systems have a varyi ng pi tch angl e that
changes the speed rati o when the pul l ey i s moved i n or out.
However, because of si dewear on the bel ts, these systems
rel i abi l i ty probl ems.
Hydraul i c coupl i ngs work l i ke a centri f ugal pump, al l owi ng
speed to be adj usted conti nuousl y by control l i ng the amount
of sl i ppage. Al though these systems adj ust speeds duri ng
l ost because of i ncreases i n the amount of hydraul i c sl i p i s
essenti al l y unrecoverabl e.
f rom a motor to a l oad. Maki ng use of the pri nci pl e of
magneti c i nducti on, they consi st of two components that
do not come i n physi cal contact wi th one another. A rotor
assembl y contai ni ng permanent magnets i s mounted on the
l oad shaf t, and a conductor assembl y wi th copper ri ngs i s
connected to the motor shaf t. The rel ati ve moti on between
wi dth of the gap changes the coupl i ng f orce, produci ng an
Electrical. Eddy current coupl i ngs al l ow speed to be
adj usted conti nuousl y by control l i ng the strength of the
thi s al l ows greater sl i p between the two. Eddy current
coupl i ngs provi de eff ecti ve speed control ; however, they
resul t i n comparati vel y hi gh heat l oss and are typi cal l y
mai ntenance i ntensi ve; f or the most part, they have been
repl aced by VFDs.
0ompetitive Advautages
provi de numerous advantages over other control methods.
For exampl e, usi ng VFDs i n pumpi ng and f an systems
opti ons, such as throttl i ng and bypass. These advantages are
di scussed i n more detai l i n I mprovi ng Pumpi ng System
Per for mance: A Sourcebook for I ndustr y and I mprovi ng Fan
System Per for mance: A Sourcebook for I ndustr y. Both are
avai l abl e on the I TP Web si te at www.eere.energy.gov/
Nisapplicatious
VFDs are not recommended f or appl i cati ons i n whi ch
sl owi ng down the machi ne speed causes operati ng
pumpi ng systems that have hi gh stati c head characteri sti cs,
sl owi ng down the pump speed too much can f orce the pump
to operate i n a vi rtual shutof f head condi ti on. Under these
condi ti ons, the pump can experi ence damagi ng vi brati ons
l ow speeds, such as certai n mi xi ng processes, the power
l ower speeds. I n such cases, the i ntegral motor f an may not
as i mportant because the wi ndi ngs generate l ess heat.
However, i n some constant horsepower appl i cati ons,
f rom overheati ng. I n these cases, a cool i ng f an powered by
i ts own motor i s used.
Ai r compressors usi ng VFDs are becomi ng more common.
These systems work wel l i n pl ants i n whi ch ai r demand
vari es.
The l oad characteri sti cs of other machi nery, such as posi ti ve
di spl acement pumps, of ten do not f avor the use of VFDs. I n
these appl i cati ons, the l i near rel ati onshi p between output,
technol ogi es.
Bear ing Cur rents. I n some VFD appl i cati ons, motors
experi ence beari ng probl ems caused by current that travel s
through the beari ng. The cause of these probl ems i s the
i nducti on of a sl i ght vol tage i n the shaf t of a motor or i ts
i n the power suppl y to the motor, the harmoni cs coul d
contri bute to the i nduced shaf t vol tage. I n appl i cati ons
i n whi ch the shaf t i s connected to a ground source (f or
exampl e, a pumpi ng system) that provi des a better di scharge
path f or the vol tage, beari ng currents are general l y not
a probl em. I n other appl i cati ons, the i nduced vol tage
di scharges through the beari ngs, creati ng degradati on
probl ems. Al though thi s current i s rel ati vel y smal l , i t can
cause pi tti ng on the beari ng races and rol l i ng el ements, and
thi s can resul t i n i ncreased wear rates under l oad.
One of the most common ways to avoi d beari ng current
beari ngs. I nsul ated beari ngs on the motor coul d move
groundi ng brush to provi de an al ternate path f or the shaf t
vol tage di scharge. Whi l e eff ecti ve at reduci ng beari ng
currents, the groundi ng brush must be mai ntai ned, whi ch
of ten means repl aci ng the el ement every three months.
Newer technol ogi es are al ways bei ng eval uated. One of the
has been used on copyi ng machi nes f or years. Al though thi s
i s not yet a proven technol ogy f or i ndustri al motors, i t coul d
mai ntenance. Fi nal l y, the use of el ectrochemi cal grease i s
recommended f or some appl i cati ons. Thi s grease provi des
a ground path that can remove enough current to protect the
beari ng.
Power Quality Effects. Some VFDs, especi al l y pul se
wi dth modul ati on (PWM) types, create rapi d-ri se-ti me
pul ses (spi kes) i n the vol tage wavef orm. The pul ses have
a very steep l eadi ng edge, or rapi d change of vol tage wi th
ti me. A vol tage wi th a hi gh rate of change i s unevenl y
di stri buted al ong the motor s wi ndi ngs. The most harmf ul
eff ect occurs when the motor f eeder cabl e i s rel ati vel y l ong.
The i nductance of a l ong motor f eeder cabl e may create
vol tage wave may appear at motor termi nal s. When the
vol tage changes f rom zero to i ts f ul l val ue, there can be an
overshoot at the motor termi nal s of more than twi ce the
normal val ue.
Al most hal f of that overshoot can be dropped across the
turn-to-turn i nsul ati on i s desi gned f or onl y a f ew vol ts, and
the overshoot vol tage causes a di scharge between the turns
of the wi ndi ng. Over ti me, thi s di scharge can cause wi ndi ng
damage and premature f ai l ure of the motor.
There are several sol uti ons to thi s probl em. A choke,
or i nductor, can be pl aced on the output of the dri ve, a
capaci tor can be pl aced i n paral l el wi th the motor, or an
capaci tance (C).
I t i s i mportant to note that motor manuf acturers have
duty, whi ch i s much more resi stant to vol tage pul ses.
Normal l y, i nverter-duty motors shoul d be used i n PWM
appl i cati ons, al though many manuf acturers of f er i nverter-
Motor users shoul d al ways consul t the dri ve manual when
usi ng l onger motor f eeder cabl es to ensure that the cabl es do
not exceed the maxi mum recommended l ength.

Addrass|ng |n-P|ant F|actr|ca| 0|str|but|on and
Powar 0ua||ty |ssuas
Motor system perf ormance can be adversel y aff ected
by poorl y desi gned and mai ntai ned i n-pl ant el ectri cal
sophi sti cated motor systems empl oy newer technol ogi es
such as sof t-starters, dri ves, and stepper motors al ong wi th
programmabl e l ogi c control l ers (PLCs); these motor systems
and others nearby are of ten sensi ti ve to and aff ected by poor
processes are bei ng automated and more computers are
attenti on.
For exampl e, i n pl asti cs extrusi on processes there i s a ri sk
I n pharmaceuti cal and other mi xi ng or ti me-sensi ti ve
probl em stri kes at the wrong ti me.
programs i s to upgrade i nteri or l i ghts to hi gh-i ntensi ty
di scharge l i ghti ng (HI D). I t can take several mi nutes
f or a bal l ast to bri ng these l i ghts up to normal i ntensi ty.
emergency l i ghti ng appl i cati ons, HI D l i ghti ng systems must
be suppl emented by other l i ghts to ensure saf ety.
These are the pri mary probl ems associ ated wi th i n-pl ant

and surges, harmoni cs, and other si gnal di storti ons
Fi ndi ng sol uti ons to these probl ems and correcti ng them can
-
are l ess l i kel y to cause di stri buti on system probl ems. Un-
derstandi ng the i mpact that motors have on the perf ormance
of a f aci l i ty s el ectri cal di stri buti on system (and vi ce-versa)
can hel p i mprove an i ndustri al pl ant s overal l operati on.
Voltage Proolems
Vol tage probl emswhi ch i ncl ude outages, sags, surges,
and unbal ancesare basi cal l y any devi ati ons i n a normal
f rom reduced perf ormance characteri sti cs to motor damage
to compl ete motor f ai l ure. Si nce motor f ai l ure may
restarti ng and perhaps resynchroni zi ng the enti re system,
understandi ng common causes of outages and sags can
prevent costl y producti on probl ems. Si zi ng motors to
operate at 80% vol tage i s a maj or cause of oversi zi ng.
Outages. Outages, the most noti ceabl e probl em, can be
momentary power l osses caused by f aul ts f rom ei ther
i nternal or external events. Faul ts that cause momentary
wi nd mi ght cause a power l i ne to contact a ground source,
causi ng an overcurrent condi ti on that acti vates protecti ve
swi tchgear. However, once the f aul t i s cl eared, the
swi tchgear can real i gn to provi de power. Long-term outages
are usual l y the resul t of a l i ne probl em, such as a damaged
power l i ne or the catastrophi c f ai l ure of a transf ormer or
swi tchgear component.
Outages can al so be part of a uti l i ty s strategy to manage
l oads duri ng hi gh demand peri ods. To prevent one area
f rom l osi ng power f or an extended peri od, some uti l i ti es use
rol l i ng brownouts to manage thei r capaci ty.
Sags. A vol tage sag i s a decrease i n the magni tude of vol tage
f rom 10% to 90% that l asts anywhere f rom hal f a cycl e up
are most of ten caused by i n-pl ant events or acti vi ti es at a
nei ghbori ng f aci l i ty that pul l l arge currents.
Motors wi th l arge starti ng currents can create vol tage sags,
especi al l y i f the motor i s l arge rel ati ve to the capaci ty of
the di stri buti on system. Vol tage sags can cause protecti ve
devi ces such as rel ays to de-energi ze, and they can al so
wi th l ow power f actors of ten experi ence vol tage sags
caused by the hi gh current l evel s i n the di stri buti on system.
Vol tage sags of ten cause probl ems wi th PWM types of
ri de-through capabi l i ty i f the durati on and magni tude of
be i nstal l ed to record troubl esome sags and to i denti f y thei r
source and durati on.
Over voltage and Under voltage. Motors are desi gned to
operate wi th +/ 10% of thei r rated vol tage. However, even
wi thi n thi s range, changes i n the vol tage suppl i ed can aff ect
devi ati ons i n the vol tage suppl i ed to a motor system shoul d
be l ess than +/ 2%.
Changes i n the vol tage suppl i ed to i nducti on motors can
decrease i n the vol tage suppl i ed to a Desi gn B i nducti on
l ow vol tages i s the i ncreased current draw that the motor
energi zes the motor under l ow vol tage condi ti ons to prevent
damage f rom the hi gh current draw.
Conversel y, i ncreasi ng the motor s vol tage by 10%
i mproves some operati ng characteri sti cs of the motor,
coul d decrease.
Vol tage devi ati ons can be caused by any of the f ol l owi ng
f actors:

and seasonal operati on
These probl ems can be caused by sources wi thi n the pl ant
or by the power suppl i er. Most uti l i ti es have standards
f or the power suppl i ed to a customer s f aci l i ty; a typi cal
whether these standards are bei ng met, a uti l i ty wi l l
of ten moni tor the power suppl i ed to the pl ant. Al though
f aci l i ti es can someti mes be af f ected by power di sturbances
caused by nei ghbori ng customers, pl ants that experi ence
to determi ne i f an i nternal source i s responsi bl e. System
vol tages can someti mes be corrected by adj usti ng
transf ormer tap setti ngs, i nstal l i ng automati c tap changi ng
Seasonal changes al so aff ect the power suppl y. I n hot
weather, uti l i ti es usual l y i ncrease vol tage l evel s to handl e
anti ci pated i ncreases i n cool i ng l oads f rom ai r-condi ti oners,
chi l l ers, and so on. However, these i ncreases shoul d remai n
suppl y agreement.
Unbalances. Three-phase el ectri cal systems shoul d have
by 120. A nonsymmetri cal or unbal ancedsystem i s so
cal l ed because of di ff erences between any two of the three
phases. A vol tage unbal ance resul ts i n a current unbal ance,
unbal ance wi l l al so reduce the l i f e of the motor because of
the excess heat generated i n the stator and rotor assembl y.
Vol tage unbal ance can be caused by f actors l i ke these:

i n whi ch a di sproporti onate share of si ngl e-phase l oads
i s pl aced on one of the three phases

transf ormer
When a vol tage unbal ance reaches 5%, the phase currents
can di ff er by as much as 40%. Thi s type of power suppl y
Theref ore, phase vol tages i n a pl ant shoul d be moni tored,
and i f the unbal ance exceeds 1%, correcti ve acti on shoul d
be taken.
Methods f or correcti ng unbal anced vol tages i ncl ude
redi stri buti ng si ngl e-phase l oads or havi ng the uti l i ty correct
the suppl y vol tage unbal ance. NEMA Standard MG1
f or vari ous l evel s of vol tage unbal ance. The derati ng f actors
The overal l eff ects of vol tage unbal ance on the perf ormance,
Tr ansients and Sur ges. Transi ents and surges are of ten
the resul t of a l arge swi tchi ng acti vi ty, such as energi zi ng
capaci tor banks. I n areas wi th l arge i nducti ve l oads, uti l i ti es
wi l l energi ze capaci tor banks to i ncrease the power f actor,
i mprove vol tage, and reduce the system stresses that
accompany l arge reacti ve l oads. Unf ortunatel y, energi zi ng
these capaci tor banks can create transi ent vol tage surges
Li ghtni ng i s another common cause of transi ents. The
enormous amount of energy i n a l i ghtni ng stri ke can
protecti on. Dedi cated transi ent vol tage surge suppressi on
(TVSS) devi ces are recommended f or hi ghl y sensi ti ve
Figure 16. Wavefcrm distcrted by harmcnic effects
0urrant
T|ma
Har monics. Harmoni cs are a f orm of si gnal di storti on i n
superi mposed on the 60 Hz wavef orm. When mul ti pl es
of the f undamental are added i n, they create a j agged
has a stai r-step pattern. Fi gure 16 shows a wave wi th
perf ormance of i nducti ve machi nes, such as transf ormers
and i nducti on motors. Harmoni cs can al so i nterf ere wi th the
The harmoni c content i n a power si gnal i s usual l y measured
to handl e a certai n amount of THD (a common val ue i s
5%). Harmoni cs are created by l arge nonl i near l oads such
harmoni c si gnal s that aff ect both the i ncomi ng power
suppl y and the power si gnal sent to the motors. To mi ni mi ze
devi ces and i sol ati on transf ormers wi th VFDs.
Harmoni cs i ncrease the amount of heat generated i n
motor wi ndi ngs f or a parti cul ar l oad. However, motors are
typi cal l y much l ess sensi ti ve to harmoni cs than computers
or communi cati on systems. NEMA has devel oped a speci al
measure of harmoni c di storti on f or motors cal l ed the
har moni c vol tage factor
The reactance of the l i ne between the dri ve and the motor
can contri bute to a resonance that i ncreases harmoni c
between a VFD and a motor shoul d be as short as possi bl e.
Power Factor
Power factor i s the rati o of real (worki ng) power to apparent
(total ) power. Many el ectri c uti l i ty compani es charge
addi ti onal f ees (power f actor penal ti es) i f the power f actor
of the pl ant f al l s bel ow 0.90. Si nce a typi cal i nducti on
motor operates at around 85% power f actor, many f aci l i ti es
wi th l arge motor systems and l ow power f actors f ace sti ff
penal ti es as to power f actor i f i t i s not corrected.
Low power f actor probl ems resul t mai nl y f rom the hi gh
energy. Reacti ve power l oads al so reduce the i n-pl ant el ectri c
di stri buti on system s capaci ty by creati ng an addi ti onal
Low power f actor can al so be caused by i dl i ng or l i ghtl y
rated vol tage. A l ow power f actor can be corrected by
i nstal l i ng capaci tors at a parti cul ar motor, at a motor
control center f or a seri es of motors, or at the uti l i ty poi nt
of del i very, whi chever i s more appropri ate. However,
capaci tors shoul d never be i nstal l ed di rectl y at the motor
termi nal s, where the capaci tors are swi tched on and off
wi th the motor contactor; thi s practi ce can l ead to surges
that damage the motor wi ndi ngs. I n some f aci l i ti es, l arge
synchronous motors are used to add a l eadi ng power f actor
component to the di stri buti on system.
Electromaguetic luterfereuce
el ectromagneti c i nterf erence (EMI ), or noi se, that i s both
radi ated f rom the dri ve and conducted i n condui t, cabl e tray,
swi tchi ng of the vol tage. Because the swi tchi ng i s so rapi d,
the noi se can be i n the megahertz range. At these hi gh
The noi se can cause f ai l ures i n el ectroni c ci rcui ts such as
computers, control ci rcui ts, and communi cati ons.
There are several ways to mi ti gate thi s noi se; one i s to use
Another i s to encl ose the enti re motor f eeder i n metal
condui t, f rom the dri ve to the motor.
8olutious
resol uti ons. As pl ants become i ncreasi ngl y automated,
prevent such probl ems are worth consi deri ng. Hand-hel d
i nexpensi ve. Many hand-hel d devi ces can record vol tage
and current wavef orms that can be pl ayed back l ater on a
personal computer f or f urther anal ysi s.
Soft-Star ting Devices. Energi zi ng l arge motors wi th
across-the-l i ne starti ng usual l y creates a l arge i n-rush
current, of ten si x to ei ght ti mes that of the normal operati ng
current. Start-up currents l i ke those can cause vol tage
newer motors deri ve l argel y f rom a reducti on i n the rotor
ci rcui t resi stance, compared to that of ol der, conventi onal
l ower and the starti ng currents are hi gher.
The el ectri cal system stresses caused by starti ng l arge motors
the starti ng current. Types of sof t-starters i ncl ude speci al
motor control l ers and most VFDs, whi ch can usual l y l i mi t
starti ng currents to one and one-hal f to two ti mes the motor s
rated operati ng current.
Al though a properl y desi gned system shoul d not create
system s abi l i ty to mai ntai n proper vol tage and current
duri ng i nternal or external events. For exampl e, addi ng
si ngl e-phase l oads to one phase of the di stri buti on system
can create a vol tage unbal ance among the phases that l eads
to poor motor perf ormance. Degradati on of the groundi ng
prevent f aul t-cl eari ng devi ces f rom worki ng properl y.
Capabl e el ectri cal contractors or an el ectri c uti l i ty can
perf orm a si te survey to determi ne whether the groundi ng
system bef ore addi ng new l oads.
Tr ansient Voltage Sur ge Suppressor s. Transi ent vol tage
surge suppressors (TVSSs) are desi gned to prevent sudden
and i nstrumentati on. These devi ces usual l y contai n metal
event. TVSSs aff ord protecti on f rom both hi ghl y damagi ng
vol tage surges and the l ess noti ceabl e transi ents that,
i ts operati ng l i f e. TVSSs shoul d i ndi cate vi sual l y that al l
el ements are sti l l worki ng. And, l i ke any pi ece of el ectri cal
I solation Transfor mer s. Typi cal l y, i sol ati on transf ormers
harmoni cs to prevent them f rom reachi ng sensi ti ve
VFDs of more than 1,000 hp, but they are al so of ten used
wi th smal l er VFD appl i cati ons. The drawbacks of these
of another possi bl e f ai l ure mode, and the addi ti onal
Filter s
enteri ng the power suppl y and di sturbi ng other sensi ti ve
used wi th many el ectrotechnol ogy appl i cati ons, such as
Federal Communi cati on Commi ssi on (FCC) regul ati ons
regardi ng the transmi ssi on of si gnal s that i nterf ere wi th
communi cati on channel s.
Strategies for VFDs. The f ol l owi ng acti ons can i mprove

to reduce i mpacts f rom transi ents and mi ti gate
harmoni c currents

cabl es by at l east 12 i nches to mi ni mi ze the EMI to
control ci rcui ts. I nstal l i nput, output power, and control s
i n separate metal condui t or use metal shi el di ng
between them i f they are i n adj acent cabl e trays

check wi th the manuf acturer to determi ne i f the tri p
setti ngs bandwi dth can be i ncreased

tri ps caused by overvol tage or undervol tage, i f an
automati c restart i s appropri ate f or the end-use and can
be done saf el y.
Uninter r uptible Power Supply Systems. Uni nterrupti bl e
power suppl y (UPS) systems shoul d be consi dered f or
pl ants i n whi ch vol tage sags or power i nterrupti ons can be
i n many ways, they can be grouped i nto two pri nci pal types:
stati c and dynami c.
Stati c systems rel y on batteri es to provi de power when the
i ncomi ng power ei ther sags or stops compl etel y. Dynami c
systems rel y on the i nerti a of a rotati ng massusual l y
enough f or an engi ne to start and take over as the pri me
mover.
On-Site Power Gener ation. On-si te power generati on
i s used f or cogenerati on and to provi de backup, standby,
and emergency power. On-si te power systems consi st of
generators that are powered by engi nes or turbi nes; these are
i n turn f uel ed by natural gas or stored f uel s such as propane,
di esel f uel , or oi l . Fuel s cel l s are a promi si ng al ternati ve
technol ogy. Key consi derati ons i n sel ecti ng on-si te
generati on systems are maxi mum l oad, number of ti mes the
to operate, and speed of start-up.
l arge uti l i ty systems, but they can occur i n pl ants that
sel f -generate. Wi th on-si te generati on, the el ectri c power
l arge l oads are added or dropped, the ef f ect on the generator
current can be the resul t.
System M onitor ing Software. Numerous computer-based
to be eval uated conti nuousl y. I f probl ems are encountered,
the systems note the parti cul ar probl em (e.g., vol tage sag,
i nterrupti on). Thi s i nf ormati on al l ows the engi neer or
operator to make better deci si ons regardi ng the type of

Us|ng tha Sarv|ca 0antar Fva|uat|on 0u|da
Most users want to be sure that they are payi ng f or a hi gh-
more than endi ng up wi th a neat, cl ean motor. Errors and
the l i f e of the repai red motor. Thi s eval uati on gui de can
assi st i ndustri al pl ants i n eval uati ng a motor servi ce center s
l ow-vol tage i nducti on motors.
Customers of motor repai r servi ce centers need to be
knowl edgeabl e about the servi ce they are purchasi ng. I t
servi ce center i s not capabl e of i t.
There are several ways to eval uate a servi ce center. Havi ng
Vol unteer Laboratory Accredi tati on Program can hel p to
B and detect certai n types of repai r errors or shortcuts.
However, thi s i s usual l y i mpracti cal because of the ti me and
expense i nvol ved, and i t may not reveal whether a l ower-
or predated i t. Thi s al so cannot reveal whether one repai red
motor i s typi cal of al l those f rom the same servi ce center.
A vari ety of predi cti ve mai ntenance tests can be done to
I t can al so be hel pf ul to i nspect the servi ce center and
i ntervi ew i ts staff .
0otaiuiug luformatiou
The f ol l owi ng el ements can i ndi cate a servi ce center s
Pr imar y M ar ket Niche.
of repai r work on motors of the type and si ze that your
pl ant i s l i kel y to submi t. For exampl e, a pl ant that uses
smal l i nducti on motors f or the most part wi l l want to avoi d
a servi ce center whose bread and butter i s l ocomoti ve
motor-generator sets. Work done outsi de a servi ce center s
pri mary market ni che may be unacceptabl e i n terms of
Tools and Facilities. Next, an i nf ormal i nventory of the
f aci l i ty and i ts capabi l i ti es and tool s can be very hel pf ul .
wel l -regul ated power suppl y. The servi ce center must be
abl e to handl e the l argest motors you expect to submi t.
For exampl e, the wi ndi ng heads must be abl e to dupl i cate
the ori gi nal wi ndi ng patterns. Form-wound coi l s are of ten
subcontracted, but these are not normal l y used i n l ow-
vol tage motors.
Repair M ater ials. Then, i t i s hel pf ul to check on whether
the center houses a vari ety of materi al s needed f or motor
repai rs, such as el ectri cal i nsul ati on materi al s. These
i ncl ude sl ot l i ners, wi re sl eeves, speci al paper separators
f or coi l groups, and materi al f or tyi ng and restrai ni ng end
turns. Most servi ce centers stock onl y cl ass F or cl ass H
i nsul ati ng materi al s, whi ch of ten exceed ori gi nal i nsul ati on
heat rati ngs. Thi s makes thi ngs si mpl er f or the shop, and i t
adds a sl i ght thermal margi n f or motors that were ori gi nal l y
i nsul ated at a l ower thermal cl ass.
The repai r shoul d dupl i cate the ori gi nal coi l sthe same
di mensi ons, wi re si ze(s), number of eff ecti ve turns, and
cross-secti onal areaunl ess proven better al ternati ves are
agreed upon. To do thi s, servi ce centers shoul d ei ther carry
a broad i nventory of wi res i n vari ous si zes or descri be how
Staff
servi ce center s staf f . The center s staf f shoul d be stabl e,
knowl edgeabl e, experi enced, and wel l -trai ned. A l ow
turnover rate can i ndi cate a hi gh degree of empl oyee
sati sf acti on and a wi l l i ngness on the part of management to
i nvest i n trai ni ng and educati on.
Recor dkeeping. Motor management i s l i ke heal th care,
i n that a record of past probl ems and remedi es can be
i nval uabl e f or di agnosi ng or preventi ng new probl ems and
resol vi ng warranty i ssues. An el aborate computer system
may be i mpressi ve, but many servi ce centers keep good
records on j ob cards. These can be thorough and retai ned
center s recordkeepi ng system.
Cleanliness. Al most i ntui ti vel y, we associ ate cl eanl i ness
of aestheti cs, because most of the materi al s and suppl i es
used i n a motor servi ce center need to be protected f rom
contami nati on. So, the next step i s to observe the cl eanl i ness
so they can be retri eved and used easi l y. To mai ntai n thei r
away or protected f rom damage when they are not i n use.
Pl aces where beari ngs and l ubri cants are stored or i nstal l ed
must be cl ean, because even a smal l parti cl e can cause
premature beari ng f ai l ure.
Standar d Operating Procedures. Fi nal l y, i t i s i mportant
rare, but they may become more commonpl ace as a resul t
system, Advanced Energy s Proven Excel l ence
management standards. Servi ce center managers shoul d be
abl e to poi nt to documents that provi de standards, operati ng
standards, testi ng procedures, f orms f or recordkeepi ng, and
cal i brati on records.
workmanshi p standards can be ti me-consumi ng. Two
methods are avai l abl e f or eval uati on: i ntervi ews and
i nspecti ons. Both shoul d be used to an appropri ate degree.
To ensure a comprehensi ve eval uati on, a Motor Repai r
Servi ce Center Checkl i st i s provi ded i n Appendi x D. I t
can be compl eted duri ng the i ntervi ew and annotated as
necessary duri ng a wal k-through i nspecti on. The checkl i st
0ouductiug the Evaluatiou
center; pl an to reserve at l east hal f a day. Advi se the servi ce
center manager that thi s i s part of a structured eval uati on
and that the manager mi ght be asked to produce evi dence of
practi ces.
I n spi te of the ri gorousness of the eval uati on, try to make
the servi ce center manager f eel comf ortabl e. Al l ow the
manager to expl ai n answers. Do not hesi tate to di verge f rom
the wri tten checkl i st to better understand the servi ce center s
i mpressi on of maki ng j udgments on the spot.
Fi nal l y, be sure you are wel l i nf ormed. I t i s i mportant to
be f ami l i ar wi th motor constructi on, repai r methods, and
rel ated i ssues. Read the Motor Repai r Tech Br i ef and i f
possi bl e, more detai l ed sources such as Qual i ty El ectr i c
Motor Repai r : A Gui debook for El ectr i c Uti l i ti es. See
Secti on 4, Where to Fi nd Hel p, f or more detai l s about
these publ i cati ons, i ncl udi ng how to obtai n them.
Sact|on 3: Notor Systam
Fconom|cs
0varv|aw
I ndustri al f aci l i ty managers of ten have to convi nce
are worth the i nvestmentwhi ch can be more of a
chal l enge than the engi neeri ng behi nd the i mprovement.
An eff ecti ve way to begi n the proj ect proposal process i s to
anal yze the economi c ( dol l ars-and-cents ) i mpacts of the
to a proposal that emphasi zes the ki l owatt-hours saved or
An economi c approach al so enabl es f aci l i ty managers to
to hel p prepare the ki nd of proposal that wi l l persuade
upgrades.
Thi s secti on contai ns some recommendati ons f or proposi ng
Undarstand|ng 0orporata Pr|or|t|as
a board of di rectors, and an owner or sharehol ders i f
corporati on s i ndustri al f aci l i ti es do so by generati ng
revenue that exceeds the cost of owni ng and operati ng the
are assets that must generate an economi c return.
The r ate of retur n on assets i s the annual earni ngs
attri butabl e to the sal e of goods produced by those assets,
di vi ded by the val ue of the assets. Thi s rate of return i s a
key measure by whi ch corporate deci si on-makers are hel d
wi l l generate a f avorabl e return on assets. When f aced wi th
Thi s approach to maki ng busi ness deci si ons can i mpose
several pri ori ti es on the f aci l i ty manager. These i ncl ude
assuri ng rel i abi l i ty i n producti on, avoi di ng unwanted
surpri ses by sti cki ng wi th f ami l i ar technol ogi es and
practi ces, and contri buti ng to cost control today, someti mes
than a necessi ty.
Fortunatel y, the story does not end here. The f ol l owi ng
money and contri bute to corporate goal s whi l e ef f ecti vel y
reduci ng energy consumpti on and cutti ng noxi ous
combusti on emi ssi ons. Thi s i s i nf ormati on that the f aci l i ty
manager can use to make a more compel l i ng case f or an
Motor system i mprovement proj ects can move to the top of
corporate needs. There are usual l y many opportuni ti es to
i mprove the motor systems of an i ndustri al pl ant. Once
corporate pri ori ti es i n dol l ars-and-cents l anguage.
provi des an eff ecti ve f ramework f or thi s. LCC anal yses
wi th an i nvestment. The resul texpressed as a net gai n or
l osscan be compared wi th other i nvestment opti ons or
wi th the expected outcome of not maki ng the i nvestment.
As a comprehensi ve accounti ng of an i nvestment opti on, the
of the f ol l owi ng:

downti me.
Thi s ki nd of anal ysi s of ten shows that el ectri ci ty costs
represent as much as 96% of the total LCC, the i ni ti al
capi tal outl ay onl y makes up 3% of the total , and
mai ntenance accounts f or a mere 1%. Cl earl y, any measure
that reduces el ectri ci ty consumpti on wi thout reduci ng
i mpact on the company.
LCC anal yses shoul d al so i ncl ude the ti me val ue of
money. A hel pf ul tool i n determi ni ng the LCC of motor
i mprovement proj ects i s the DOE MotorMaster+ sof tware
program. For more i nf ormati on on thi s sof tware tool ,
see Establ i shi ng a Motor
Management Program.
more compl ex than others, and a proposal may be based
on several of them. The choi ce i s up to the presenter and
shoul d take the audi ence i nto account.
A si mpl e (and wi del y used) measure of proj ect economi cs
i s the payback per i od
not take i nto account the ti me val ue of money; i n other
words, i t makes no di sti ncti on between a dol l ar earned
today and one earned i n the uncertai n f uture. Sti l l , the
si mpl e payback peri od i s easy to use and understand and
deci si on.
cal cul ati ng a si mpl e payback:

ti mi ng

are i gnored

cal cul ati ons do not al ways i ndi cate the best choi ce
among several proj ect opti ons

More sophi sti cated anal yses take i nto account f actors such
as di scount rates, tax i mpacts, and the cost of capi tal . One
approach i nvol ves cal cul ati ng the net present val ue of a
worth of costs
Another commonl y used cal cul ati on f or determi ni ng
economi c f easi bi l i ty of a proj ect i s the i nter nal r ate of
retur n
di scount rate can be compared to the i nterest rate at whi ch a
corporati on borrows capi tal .
Many compani es set a threshol d (or hurdl e) rate f or
are di scounted at the threshol d rate, and the net present
worth of the proj ect must be posi ti ve i n order f or the proj ect
to be a go.
Future cost savi ngs shoul d be a strong i ncenti ve to i mprove
be enough. The f aci l i ty manager can strengthen the case
f or maki ng i mprovements by rel ati ng a f avorabl e LCC to
can determi ne whi ch of the f ol l owi ng suggesti ons f or
A hew 8ource of Permaueut 0apital
be regarded as a new source of capi tal f or the company.
yi el d annual savi ngs each year over the economi c l i f e of
savi ngs wi l l be a permanent source of f unds as l ong as the
Added 8harefolder Value
Publ i cl y hel d corporati ons usual l y take advantage of
opportuni ti es to enhance sharehol der val ue, and motor
val ue. Sharehol der val ue i s the product of two vari abl es:
annual earni ngs and the pri ce-to-earni ngs (P/E) rati o.
The P/E rati o descri bes the corporati on s stock val ue as
the current stock pri ce di vi ded by the most recent annual
earni ngs per share. To take advantage of thi s measure, the
savi ngs (or rather, addi ti on to earni ngs) that the proposal
wi l l generate. Mul ti pl yi ng that earni ngs i ncrement by the
P/E rati o yi el ds the total new sharehol der val ue attri butabl e
0reater 0omfort aud 8afet]
enhanced saf ety and comf ort. Routi ne system moni tori ng
usual l y uncovers operati onal abnormal i ti es bef ore they
present a danger to pl ant personnel . El i mi nati ng or
control l i ng these dangers reduces the threats to l i f e, heal th,
and property i n the workpl ace.
lmproved Reliaoilit] aud 0apacit] Utilizatiou
use of assets. Eff orts to achi eve and mai ntai n energy
By ensuri ng the i ntegri ty of system assets, the f aci l i ty
manager can promi se more rel i abl e pl ant operati ons. From
a corporate perspecti ve, thi s al so means a greater rate of
return on a pl ant s assets.
A Better Bottom liue
Each dol l ar saved on el ectri ci ty goes di rectl y to the bottom
sal es revenue.
A 0all to Actiou

can be attracti ve to corporate deci si on makers i f i t contai ns
the f ol l owi ng:

proj ect

added sharehol der val ue, reducti on of envi ronmental
compl i ance costs, and i mproved capaci ty uti l i zati on

current corporate needs.
life-0]cle 0osts
Motor systems are cri ti cal to the operati on of al most every
pl ant and account f or about 60%-70% of al l the el ectri ci ty
used i n an average pl ant. I n spi te of thi s, many f aci l i ti es
have no i dea how much motor system operati on costs on
an annual basi s, or how much money they coul d save by
i mprovi ng the perf ormance of thei r motor systems.
Li f e-cycl e cost anal ysi s i s i mportant when managi ng
el ectri c motor systems. Perf ormi ng a l i f e-cycl e cost anal ysi s
on a system ref ers to an economi c anal ysi s that takes i nto
account al l of a proj ect s costs, i ncl udi ng:

of borrowi ng money

and downti me.
Li f e-cycl e cost anal yses shoul d i ncl ude the ti me val ue of
money. These anal yses are typi cal l y perf ormed to compare
one al ternati ve wi th another, or to see i f a proj ect shoul d
be undertaken, based on a company s mi ni mum threshol d
f or return on the i nvestment. A hel pf ul tool i n determi ni ng
motor l i f e-cycl e costs i s the U.S. Department of Energy s
MotorMaster+ sof tware program. Further i nf ormati on on
thi s tool i s avai l abl e i n the
Establ i shi ng a Motor Management Program.
0alculatiug Electricit] 0osts
El ectri ci ty costs can be determi ned by usi ng motor
namepl ate data or di rectl y measuri ng current or power
usage. Wi th any of these methods, the data must represent
actual system operati ng condi ti ons i n order to be usef ul .
I n systems wi th wi del y varyi ng operati ng condi ti ons,
col l ecti ng data onl y once wi l l not provi de a true i ndi cati on
of the amount of energy that a motor system consumes.
Nameplate Data M ethod.
costs i s to use the motor namepl ate data. Addi ti onal data
needed i ncl ude annual hours of operati on (hours per year),
uni t cost of el ectri ci ty ($/kWh), and average l oad factor,
whi ch ref ers to the average percentage of f ul l l oad el ectri c
power at whi ch the motor operates.
Motor system economi c anal yses are dri ven l argel y by
the amount of ti me and the percentage of i ts f ul l capaci ty
at whi ch the motor system operates. To account f or the
f act that a motor usual l y does not operate at i ts rated f ul l
l oad al l the ti me, i ts average l oad f actor can be esti mated.
Annual el ectri ci ty costs can be cal cul ated by i nserti ng thi s
the box on page 42 ti tl ed Si mpl e Cal cul ati on.
Most i ndustri al motors have a servi ce f actor of 1.15. Thi s
means that a motor wi th a nomi nal namepl ate rati ng of 100
hp coul d i n f act be operated i ntermi ttentl y up to 115 hp.
reduce i nsul ati on l i f e. An i mportant i mpl i cati on of the
servi ce f actor i s that the l oad f actor coul d be greater than
one i f the motor i s operated conti nuousl y.
Direct M easurement M ethod. A more accurate way to
determi ne el ectri ci ty consumpti on i s to take el ectri cal
readi ng power (kW) wi th a wattmeter or readi ng amps and
vol ts and cal cul ati ng kW usi ng the namepl ate power f actor.
current; many motor i nstal l ati ons do not provi de conveni ent
access to both. To cal cul ate el ectri ci ty consumpti on, the
measured kW val ue i s mul ti pl i ed by hours of operati on
and el ectri ci ty costs, as shown i n the cal cul ati on i n Case I
i n the box ti tl ed Di rect Measurement on thi s page. Thi s
cal cul ati on i s f or a motor wi th a constant l oad, that i s, one
that does not vary over ti me.
I f a wattmeter i s not avai l abl e or i f i t i s not practi cal to use
one, then amps and vol ts can be measured separatel y. I f there
i s a possi bi l i ty the motor l oad i s bel ow 65% of the motor s
rated capaci ty, then cal cul ati ons usi ng di rect measurement of
amps and vol ts wi l l not provi de usef ul resul ts.
A cl amp-on type ammeter i s used to measure current on
each of the three power cabl es runni ng to the motor; most
i ndustri al motors are three-phase. I t can be conveni ent
to take these readi ngs at the motor control l er; however,
the connecti on box on the motor i tsel f i s someti mes more
accessi bl e. Li ne vol tage i s usual l y measured at the motor
control l er, pref erabl y at the same ti me that the current
readi ng i s taken. I n some f aci l i ti es, l i ne vol tage drops wi th
i ncreases i n power usage. See the cal cul ati on f or a motor
wi th a constant l oad shown i n Case I I i n the box ti tl ed
Di rect Measurement.
Di rect measurements of motor current are not al ways
practi cal , however. Taki ng hot measurements (at hi gh power
l evel s) of motor current pose saf ety ri sks f or workers;
these measurements mi ght not be f easi bl e i n an i ndustri al
envi ronment where power connecti ons are exposed to
moi sture or contami nants.
S|mp|a 0a|cu|at|on
Annua| anargy costs =
(motor fu||-|oad braka horsapowar} x (0.74 kw/hp} x
(a|actr|c|ty cost |n $/kwh} x |oad factor
Assumpt|ons:
0ost of electricit] = $0.05/kwh
load factor = O5
Fxamp|a:
Notor full-load hp = 100 hp
Auuual hours of operatiou = 8,7O0 hours (8-shift, coutiuuous
operatiou}
Annua| a|actr|c|ty costs =
(100 hp} x (0.74O kw/hp} x (1/0.95} x (8,7O0 hours} x
($0.05/kwh} x .O5 = $22,35
0|ract Naasuramant
Assumpt|ons:
8-phase motor
0.85 power factor (uameplate}
0.05 $/kwh uuit electricit] cost
Auuual hours of operatiou = 8,7O0 hours (8-shift, coutiuuous
operatiou}
0asa |. Us|ng a wattmatar
wattmeter readiug (usiug a 8-phase settiug} x (auuual hours of
operatiou} x (electricit] cost iu $/kwh}
Fxamp|a:
wattmeter readiug = 77.88 kwh
0asa ||. Us|ng a Vo|tmatar and an Ammatar Saparata|y
[ (load amps} x (volts} x (1.782} x (power factor} |/1000} x
(auuual hours of operatiou} x (electricit] cost iu $/kwh}
(77.88 kwh} x (8,750 hours} x ($0.05/kwh} = $84,111
Fxamp|a:
Average load amp measuremeut across all phases = 115 A
Neasured voltage = 4O0 V
[ (115 A} x (4O0 V} x (1.782} x (0.85}|/1000} x (8,7O0 hours} x
($0.05/kwh} = $34,111
Tab|a 4. F|nanc|a| |mpact of Notor 0onsumpt|on and Sav|ngs for Sa|actad |ndustr|as
|ndustry 0roups Notor Sys. 0osts/
Fstab.
Notor Fnargy 0osts /
Tota| 0parat|ng 0osts
Sav|ngs par Fstab.
Par Yaar
Sav|ngs as % of
0parat|ng Narg|n
Paper Nills 4.O milliou O.5 $O59,000 5
5.O milliou 1.4 $94O,000 1
ludustrial luorgauic 0hemicals, uec. 1.O milliou 10.4 $288,000 O
Paperooard Nills 8.0 milliou O.4 $492,000 5
Blast Furuaces aud 8teel Nills O.0 milliou 2.1 $858,000 2
ludustrial 0rgauic 0hemicals, uec. 1.8 milliou 1.0 $91,000 1
ludustrial 0ases 1.1 milliou 21.7 $11O,000 18
Plastics Naterials aud Resius 1.5 milliou 1.5 $121,000 1
0emeut, H]draulic 2.2 milliou 9.O $219,000 4
Pulp Nills 1.7 milliou O.7 $488,000 5
Sources: Manuf acturers Energy Consumpti on Survey 1994, Bureau of Economi c Anal ysi s 1997, Census of
Manuf acturers 1993, and Uni ted States I ndustr i al El ectr i c Motor Systems Mar ket Oppor tuni ti es Assessment
Euerg] aud Demaud 0harges-Uuderstaudiug
Your Utilit] Bill
The cal cul ati ons shown earl i er use el ectri ci ty rates stated
i n terms of dol l ars per ki l owatt-hour ($/kWh). However,
el ectri c uti l i ti es use more compl i cated rate structures to
bi l l thei r i ndustri al customers. These typi cal l y i ncl ude both
energy ($/kWh) and demand charges ($/kW). Di f f erent rates
depend on the l evel of consumpti on and the ti me of year.
Demand charges are based on the peak demand f or a gi ven
el ectri ci ty costs of some customers. Other components of
i ndustri al el ectri ci ty bi l l s, such as power f actor penal ti es,
can be af f ected by el ectri c motor systems. For exampl e, the
use of l i ghtl y l oaded i nducti on motors can adversel y aff ect
the power f actor of a pl ant and l ead to hi gher bi l l s. For more
i nf ormati on, see the Addressi ng

cal cul ated, the margi nal cost of the el ectri ci ty must be
consi dered. Thi s takes i nto account energy and demand
charges, seasonal rates, power f actor penal ti es, and di f f erent
rates f or di f f erent l evel s of consumpti on. El ectri c uti l i ti es
Naiuteuauce 0ousideratious aud life 0]cle 0osts
There are two pri nci pal types of mai ntenance: preventi ve
or predi cti ve mai ntenance (PPM) and repai r. A PPM
schedul e can i mprove system rel i abi l i ty, reduce the ri sk of
unpl anned downti me, and hel p pl ants to avoi d expensi ve
properl y or has broken. I n general , PPM i s l ess costl y than
repai r. A wel l -desi gned PPM schedul e mi ni mi zes the need
f or repai rs by detecti ng and resol vi ng probl ems bef ore they
devel op i nto more seri ous i ssues.
practi ces can hel p to mi ni mi ze operati ng costs. Taki ng l i f e-
cycl e costs i nto account duri ng the i ni ti al system desi gn phase
both reduce operati ng costs and i mprove system rel i abi l i ty.
Notor 8]stems Narket 8tud] life
A study commi ssi oned by the U.S. Department of Energy
has esti mated that opti mi zi ng i ndustri al motor systems
through the i mpl ementati on of mature, proven, cost-
energy consumpti on by 75 to 122 bi l l i on kWh per year, or
up to $5.8 bi l l i on per year. These esti mates i ncl ude onl y the
to resul t f rom opti mi zati on, such as i mproved control over
producti on processes, reduced mai ntenance, and i mproved
envi ronmental compl i ance. Thi s study i s based upon on-si te
surveys of 265 i ndustri al f aci l i ti es i n the Uni ted States, i n a
probabi l i ty-based sampl i ng of the U.S. manuf acturi ng sector.
The study, Uni ted States I ndustr i al Motor Systems Mar ket
Oppor tuni ti es Assessment, can be downl oaded f rom the I TP
Web si te at www.eere.energy.gov/i ndustry/bestpracti ces, or
obtai ned through the EERE I nf ormati on Center.
Tabl e 4 di spl ays motor systems energy use and potenti al
savi ngs per establ i shment i n the 10 f our-di gi t SI C groups
wi th the hi ghest annual motor energy consumpti on. I n these
i ndustri es, the annual cost of motor system energy i n a
typi cal pl ant exceeds $1 mi l l i on; i n steel mi l l s, the energy
cost i s $6 mi l l i on. Potenti al savi ngs at the typi cal pl ant
are al so very l arge, rangi ng f rom $90,000 per year i n the
i ndustri al organi c chemi cal s sector to nearl y $1 mi l l i on per
The ri ght-hand col umn of Tabl e 4 shows potenti al energy
suggest the potenti al i mpact of motor energy savi ngs on
the bottom l i ne. The process i ndustri es l i sted i n Tabl e 4
operate on very thi n margi ns, that i s, the di ff erence between
revenues f rom sal es and vari abl e costs, i ncl udi ng l abor,
materi al s, and sel l i ng costs. I n 1996, operati ng margi ns f or
the 10 groups l i sted bel ow ranged f rom 10% to 24%, and
cl ustered around 16%. Thus, even rel ati vel y smal l i ncreases
Summary
the key to maxi mum cost savi ngs. Many motor system users
tend to be more concerned wi th i ni ti al costs and obtai ni ng
For opti mum motor system economi cs, motor system
users shoul d use a l i f e-cycl e cost anal ysi s to sel ect the best
Thi s porti on of the sourcebook l i sts resources that can hel p
end users i ncrease the cost-ef f ecti veness and perf ormance
of thei r motor and dri ve systems. These resources are
organi zed i n three mai n subsecti ons: DOE s I ndustri al
Technol ogi es Program (I TP) and Technol ogy Del i very,
Di rectory of Contacts, and Resources and Tool s.
el ectri c motor and other i ndustri al systems nati onwi de.
Resources i ncl ude publ i cati ons, sof tware assessment
tool s, trai ni ng sessi ons, and other resources that hel p
i ndustri es i mprove the perf ormance of i ndustri al energy
use.
associ ati ons and other organi zati ons that can provi de
addi ti onal i nf ormati on on i mprovi ng the perf ormance of
motor and dri ve systems.
reports, other publ i cati ons, government and commerci al
stati sti cs and market f orecasts, sof tware, trai ni ng courses,
and other sources of i nf ormati on
These resources can hel p motor system users make
i nf ormed deci si ons when desi gni ng and purchasi ng motor
and dri ve systems.
|TP and Tachno|ogy 0a||vary
U.S. 0apartmant of Fnargy
|ndustr|a| Tachno|og|as Program (|TP}
Room 5F-065, MS EE-2F
1000 I ndependence Ave., SW
Washi ngton, DC 20585
Phone: 1-877-EERE-I NF (1-877-337-3463)
www.eere.energy.gcv/industry
0verview
I ndustri al manuf acturi ng f aci l i ti es consume 36% of al l
the energy used i n the Uni ted States. Theref ore, I TP was
preventi on technol ogi es and practi ces f or many i ndustri al
appl i cati ons. I TP works wi th the nati on s most energy- and
resource-i ntensi ve i ndustri es to devel op a vi si on of thei r
f uture and roadmaps on how to achi eve these vi si ons over a
20-year ti mef rame.
Thi s col l aborati ve process al i gns i ndustry goal s wi th
f ederal resources to accel erate research and devel opment
technol ogi es i s compl emented by I TP energy management
best practi ces f or i mmedi ate savi ngs resul ts. I TP hel ps
pol l uti on preventi on opti ons f rom a system and l i f e-cycl e
cost perspecti ve.
P0wF8 00hT80LS N0T08 00UPL|h0 L0A0 P800FSS
1200 rpm
Procass Nachan|ca| and F|actr|ca| Faadback
Notor/0r|va Subsystam Nachan|ca| Subsystam
Three-Phase
luput Power
Figure 17. Iectric Mctcr 3ystem
I n parti cul ar, through i ts Technol ogy Del i very strategy, I TP
of f ers several resources to assi st i n motor and dri ve system
energy management. These i ncl ude sof tware tool s, techni cal
resources, and trai ni ng; energy assessments through I TP s
Save Energy Now strategy; and assessments f or smal l -
to mi d-si zed pl ants through uni versi ty-based I ndustri al
Assessment Centers (I AC). Col l ecti vel y, these eff orts assi st
practi ces and technol ogi es.
Through acti vi ti es such as energy assessments, i mpl emen-
tati on of emergi ng technol ogi es, and techni cal resources
f or i ndustri al systems energy management, I TP del i vers
energy sol uti ons to hel p i ndustry save energy and costs,
reduce waste and pol l uti on, and enhance envi ronmental
perf ormance.
I TP encourages the use of a systems approach to motor
system desi gn and anal ysi s. Thi s approach seeks to i ncrease
f rom i ndi vi dual components and f uncti ons to total system
perf ormance (see Fi gure 17 on page 45).
I n a systems approach, process system desi gn and
manuf acturi ng best practi ces are used to opti mi ze the
perf ormance of the enti re process system. Then, components
and control strategi es are sel ected that best match the new,
reduced process l oad. The steps i nvol ved i n accompl i shi ng
a system opti mi zati on i nvol ve characteri zi ng the process
process l oad i n the most opti mal manner; consi deri ng al l
cycl es of the process l oad; and properl y matchi ng the motor
and dri ve to each other as wel l as to the l oad.
Fi gure 18 shows that two-thi rds of the potenti al savi ngs i n
manuf acturi ng pl ants motor systems are systems-rel ated.
Thi s demonstrates that management deci si ons and techni cal
i mprovements i n i ndustri al motor systems.
Euerg] Assessmeuts
Dependi ng on the i ndustry, energy expendi tures can be
10% or more of total operati ng costs. Save Energy Now
energy assessments i denti f y opportuni ti es f or i mpl ementi ng
new technol ogi es and system i mprovements to i ncrease
of the recommendati ons made i n these assessments have
payback peri ods of l ess than 18 months and can sti l l yi el d
Through i ts Save Energy Now strategy, I TP off ers ongoi ng,
targeted i ndustri al system assessments. I TP encourages the
nati on s l argest energy-consumi ng pl ants to appl y f or energy
si te at www.eere.energy.gov/i ndustry/saveenergynow f or
more i nf ormati on.
I n addi ti on, smal l to medi um-si zed manuf acturers can
engi neeri ng f acul ty and students f rom the centers, l ocated
at 26 uni versi ti es around the country, conduct energy audi ts
or i ndustri al assessments and provi de recommendati ons to
manuf acturers to hel p them i mprove producti vi ty, reduce
waste, and save energy. Learn more about I ACs at www.
eere.energy.gov/i ndustry/bestpracti ces.
Emergiug Techuologies
Emergi ng technol ogi es are those that resul t f rom R& D and
are ready f or f ul l -scal e demonstrati on i n actual appl i cati ons.
I TP recogni zes that compani es may be rel uctant to i nvest
capi tal i n new technol ogi es even though they can provi de
through technol ogy i mpl ementati on sol i ci tati ons, I TP hel ps
mi ti gate the ri sk associ ated wi th usi ng new technol ogi es
that are supported by i ndustry partnershi ps. Shared
of perf ormance data; and expert assessments of energy,
technol ogi es to be accepted more rapi dl y.
Figure 18. PctentiaI energy savings
Notors
15% Notors
Nanagamant
20%
Systam 0pt|m|zat|on
5%
Euerg] Nauagemeut
I TP encourages manuf acturers to adopt a comprehensi ve
approach to energy use that i ncl udes assessi ng i ndustri al
systems and eval uati ng potenti al i mprovement oppor-
process heati ng, pumpi ng, and steam systems can be
savi ngs. I TP off ers sof tware tool s and trai ni ng i n a vari ety
of system areas to hel p i ndustry become more energy and
perf ormance.
background i n opti mi zi ng i ndustri al systems. I ndi vi dual s
BestPracti ces assessment and anal ysi s sof tware tool s, and
passi ng a ri gorous exam. For more i nf ormati on on how
Speci al i sts i n your area, go to www.eere.energy.gov/
Techuical Resources
I TP of f ers a vari ety of resources to hel p i ndustry achi eve
producti vi ty, and greater competi ti veness.
I TP and BestPr actices Web Sites. The I TP and
BestPracti ces Web si tes of f er a l arge array of i nf ormati on,
products, and resources to assi st manuf acturers who are
operati ons. You can l earn about upcomi ng events,
sol i ci tati ons, and much more through the I TP si te at
www.eere.energy.gov/i ndustry.
The BestPracti ces si te off ers case studi es of compani es
technol ogi es and practi ces, as wel l as sof tware tool s,
ti p sheets, trai ni ng events, and sol i ci tati ons f or pl ant
assessments. You can see these and other resources at
www.eere.energy.gov/i ndustry/bestpracti ces.
8oftware Tools
I n addi ti on to MotorMaster + and MotorMaster+
I nternati onal , I TP off ers other sof tware tool s to hel p pl ant
i n thei r manuf acturi ng f aci l i ti es.
j oi ntl y sponsored by the Compressed Ai r Chal l enge.
AI RMaster+ hel ps end users assess the potenti al f or
ai r systems. The sof tware f eatures a number of what-i f
have the greatest savi ngs potenti al f or thei r f aci l i ty.
by i denti f yi ng savi ngs opportuni ti es, rati ng system
(PHAST) provi des an i ntroducti on to process heati ng
(f urnaces) to i denti f y and reduce non-producti ve energy
use. Compare perf ormance of the f urnace under vari ous
operati ng condi ti ons and test what-i f scenari os.
pump perf ormance data f rom Hydraul i c I nsti tute
standards and motor perf ormance data f rom the
MotorMaster+ database to cal cul ate potenti al energy and
associ ated cost savi ngs.
i mpl ement the most eff ecti ve sol uti ons f or a f aci l i ty s
steam systems. Thi s i ncl udes:
The Steam System Scopi ng Tool (SSST) hel ps steam
system energy managers and operati ons personnel f or
operati ons and management, and eval uate steam
The Steam System Assessment Tool (SSAT) esti mates
the i mpact of key steam system i mprovements. The
tool detai l s the energy, cost, and emi ssi on savi ngs of
di f f erent i mprovements.
3E-Pl us
I nsul ati on Apprai sal Sof tware was devel oped

by the North Ameri can I nsul ati on Manuf acturers
i nsul ati on and to assi st pl ant personnel i n assessi ng
i nsul ati on opportuni ti es.
Traiuiug
I TP of f ers trai ni ng sessi ons i n i ndustri al systems
i mprovements usi ng DOE sof tware tool s, i ncl udi ng
MotorMaster+. See the di scussi on on the MotorMaster+
tool i n Establ i shi ng a Motor
Management Program i n Secti on 2 of thi s sourcebook.
More i nf ormati on on motor systems trai ni ng and other
trai ni ng of f eri ngs can be f ound on the BestPracti ces Web
EERE luformatiou 0euter
products and servi ces, i ncl udi ng those f ocused on i ndustri al
i ndustri al systems such as compressed ai r, f ans, motors,
pumpi ng, process heati ng, and steam. Contact the EERE
I nf ormati on Center at (877) 337-3463 or www.eere.energy.
gov/i nf ormati oncenter.
hews
E-Bulletin i s a monthl y onl i ne newsl etter that spotl i ghts
acti vi ti es; new I TP and BestPracti ces products; trai ni ng and
events; Web updates; and sol i ci tati ons. To subscri be onl i ne,
go to www.eere.energy.gov/i ndustry/resources/ebul l eti n.
Energy M atters
opportuni ti es, techni cal i ssues, new products and servi ces,
and events rel ated to motor systems and other i ndustri al
systems such as steam, process heati ng, and compressed
ai r. Subscri be onl i ne at www.eere.energy.gov/i ndustry/
bestpracti ces/energymatters.
Educati onal and i nf ormati ve materi al s, i ncl udi ng addi ti onal
copi es of thi s sourcebook, and f urther i nf ormati on on al l
aspects of the BestPracti ces Program are avai l abl e by
cal l i ng the EERE I nf ormati on Center at (877) 337-3463.
Sof tware, publ i cati ons, and i nf ormati on on trai ni ng i s al so
avai l abl e at the BestPracti ces Web si te at www.eere.energy.
gov/i ndustry/bestpracti ces.
Softwara: NotorNastar+ and NotorNastar+
|ntarnat|ona|
managamant softwara too|, wh|ch |nc|udas a cata|og of
mora than 20,000 ac motors. Tha softwara a|so faaturas
motor |nvantory managamant too|s, ma|ntananca |og
account|ng, and anv|ronmanta| raport|ng capab|||t|as.
NotorNastar+ |ntarnat|ona| |nc|udas many of tha
capab|||t|as and faaturas of NotorNastar+; howavar, usars
can ava|uata rapa|r/rap|acamant opt|ons on a broadar
ranga of motors, |nc|ud|ng thosa tastad undar tha |nst|tuta
of F|actr|ca| and F|actron|c Fng|naars (|FFF} standard, and
thosa tastad us|ng |ntarnat|ona| F|actr|ca| 0omm|ss|on (|F0}
mathodo|ogy. w|th th|s too|, usars can conduct ana|ysas |n
rata schadu|as w|th damand chargas, ad|t and mod|fy
Fng||sh, Span|sh, and Franch.
Tachn|ca| Pub||cat|ons
To iucrease iudustr] awareuess of several fuudameutal
improvemeut opportuuities, lTP has developed several motor
tip sheets through its BestPractices program. These tip
sheets provide coucise descriptious of commou improvemeut
opportuuities. 8iuce BestPractices coutiuues to develop aud
ideutif] euerg] improvemeut programs, additioual tip sheets
are expected. Tip sheets cau oe fouud ou the BestPractices
weo site at www.eere.euerg].gov/iudustr]/oestpractices, aud
iu Appeudix B of this sourceoook.
lTP has also developed techuical puolicatious that provide
au iucreased level of detail aud guidauce iu ideutif]iug aud
implemeutiug performauce improvemeut opportuuities. These
fact sheets, market assessmeuts, aud repair documeuts cau
oe fouud ou the BestPractices weo site at www.eere.euerg].
gov/iudustr]/oestpractices/techpuos_motors.html.
0asa Stud|as and Parformanca Spot||ghts
Notor s]stem case studies aud performauce spotlights
descrioe successful euerg] aud process improvemeut
projects that are ooostiug productivit] aud saviug euerg] at
U.8. iudustrial plauts. Nau] case studies examiue the oottom-
practices aud techuologies cau ]ield. These projects aud the
accompau]iug saviugs cau oe replicated at similar plauts
owued o] the same compau] aud o] other iudustrial plauts.
spotlights ou the BestPractices weo site at www.eere.euerg].
gov/iudustr]/oestpractices/case_studies.html.
0|ractory of 0ontacts
The f ol l owi ng organi zati ons can provi de more i nf ormati on
on i mprovi ng the perf ormance of motor and dri ve systems.
Amar|can hat|ona| Standards |nst|tuta (AhS|}
25 West 43rd Street, 4th Fl oor
New York, New York 10036
(212) 642-4900; Fax: (212) 398-0023
www.ansi.crg
To downl oad standards: www.webstore.ansi .org
and coordi nates the U.S. vol untary standardi zati on and
conf ormi ty assessment system. The I nsti tute s mi ssi on i s to
enhance both the gl obal competi ti veness of U.S. busi ness
vol untary consensus standards and conf ormi ty assessment
systems, and saf eguardi ng thei r i ntegri ty.
98 North Washi ngton Street, Sui te 101
Boston, MA 02114
(617) 589-3949; Fax: (617) 589-3948
www.cee1.crg
nati onal i ni ti ati ves to promote the manuf acturi ng and
nati onal i ni ti ati ves to i ncrease the eff ecti veness of thei r
l ocal ef f orts. Founded i n 1992, CEE i s the onl y nati onal
admi ni strators.
programs and thei r key publ i c stakehol ders. Thi s i ncl udes
-
trators, envi ronmental groups, research organi zati ons and
F|actr|c Powar 8asaarch |nst|tuta (FP8|}
3420 Hi l l vi ew Avenue
Pal o Al to, CA 94304
(800) 313-3774
www.epri.ccm
EPRI i s composed mai nl y of el ectri c uti l i ty compani es.
EPRI s charter i s to di scover, devel op, and del i ver hi gh
val ue technol ogi cal advances through networki ng and
partnershi p wi th the el ectri ci ty i ndustry.
F|actr|ca| Apparatus Sarv|ca Assoc|at|on, |nc. (FASA}
1331 Baur Boul evard
St. Loui s, Mi ssouri 63132
(314) 993-2220; Fax: (314) 993-1269
www.easa.ccm
EASA i s an i nternati onal trade organi zati on of more
50 countri es. Through i ts engi neeri ng and educati onal
programs, EASA provi des members wi th a means of
the-art technol ogy. EASA publ i shes a sof tware product,
rewi ndi ng el ectri c motors f rom numerous manuf acturers.
|nst|tuta of F|actr|ca| and F|actron|cs Fng|naars (|FFF}
3 Park Avenue, 17th Fl oor
New York, New York 10016
(212) 419-7900; Fax: (212) 752-4929
www.ieee.crg
375,000 i ndi vi dual members i n 160 countri es. Through i ts
techni cal publ i shi ng, conf erences, and consensus-based
standards acti vi ti es, the I EEE produces 30% of the worl d s
publ i shed l i terature i n el ectri cal engi neeri ng and computers,
and control technol ogy, and has more than 800 acti ve
standards, wi th 700 under devel opment.
Notor 0ac|s|ons Nattar
SN
0ampa|gn
Boston, MA 02114
(617) 589-3949; Fax: (617) 589-3948
www.mctcrsmatter.crg
Motor Deci si ons Matter i s a nati onal publ i c awareness
campai gn that stri ves to educate corporate and pl ant
a speci al proj ect by CEE, publ i c and pri vate sector sponsors
and trade associ ati ons (i ncl udi ng NEMA and EASA).
hat|ona| F|actr|ca| Nanufacturars Assoc|at|on (hFNA}
1300 North 17th Street, Sui te 1752
Rosl yn, VA 22209
(703) 841-3200; Fax: (703) 841-5900
www.nema.crg
NEMA i s the l argest trade associ ati on f or manuf acturers of
products used i n the generati on, transmi ssi on, di stri buti on,
and end-use of el ectri ci ty. NEMA i s a l eadi ng devel oper of
vol untary standards f or the el ectri c component i ndustry.

EERE luformatiou 0euter
(877) 337-3463.
www.eere.energy.gcv/infcrmaticncenter
The I nf ormati on Center i s a one-stop-shop f or resources and
i nf ormati on on i mprovi ng el ectri c motor systems.
8asourcas and Too|s
A wi de range of i nf ormati on i s avai l abl e on the appl i cati on
and use of dri ves and motors. Thi s secti on f ocuses on the
f ol l owi ng resources and tool s:

Note that the descri pti ons of these resources were taken f rom
materi al devel oped by the publ i sher, sof tware desi gner, or
author. I ncl usi on here does not consti tute a recommendati on
or endorsement by the U.S. Department of Energy.
8ooks
1001 Connecti cut Avenue NW, Sui te 801
(202) 429-0063
www.aceee.crg

Author s: Steven Nadel , R. Neal El l i ott, Mi chael Shepard,
Steve Greenberg, Gai l Katz, and Ani bal T. de Al mei da
Descr i pti on
addresses how motors and motor systems can achi eve
control s, i mproved component si zi ng and repai r, better
transmi ssi on hardware, and comprehensi ve moni tori ng and
mai ntenance. I n understandabl e l anguage to nonengi neers,
provi des an overvi ew of exi sti ng motor stock, chroni cl es
experi ence wi th dri vepower programs and pol i ci es, and
off ers recommendati ons f or f uture eff orts to i ncrease motor
8arks Pub||cat|ons, |nc.
400 N. Mi chi gan Avenue, Sui te 900
Chi cago, I L 60611-4104
(312) 321-9440
www.barks.ccm

Author : Ri chard L. Nai l en
Descr i pti on
power f actor, and starti ng condi ti ons. The mi ddl e porti on
consi ders motor appl i cati on, expl ai ni ng how motors
are best matched to thei r power systems and operati ng
envi ronments. Al so l ooks at components, such as i nsul ati on,
wi ndi ngs, and beari ngs, and descri bes opti onal accessori es
and proper i nstal l ati on practi ces. Currentl y out of pri nt;
avai l abi l i ty may be l i mi ted.
8onnav|||a Powar Adm|n|strat|on

P.O. Box 3621
Portl and, OR 97208
(503) 230-7334
www.bpa.gcv/ccrpcrate/ccntact/pubIicinfc.cfm

Author
Descr i pti on: Compi l ed to hel p i ndustry i denti f y oppor-

motors. I t covers the economi c and operati onal f actors to
be consi dered when motor purchase deci si ons are bei ng
made. I ts audi ence i ncl udes pl ant managers, pl ant engi neers,
and others i nterested i n energy management or preventi ve
mai ntenance programs. Contai ns a di scussi on on the
descri pti ons of how operati ng f actors such as speed and
desi gn vol tage eff ect perf ormance.
0ambr|dga Un|vars|ty Prass
100 Brook Hi l l Dri ve
West Nyack, NY 10994
(845) 353-7500
www.cambridge.crg

Author s: W. Shepherd, L. N. Hul l ey, and D. T. W. Li ang
Descr i pti on: I ncl udes a new chapter on the appl i cati on of
second edi ti on of a comprehensi ve i ntroducti on to power
el ectroni cs. Chapters on el ectroni c swi tchi ng devi ces and
adj ustabl e speed dri ves are compl etel y rewri tten.
080 Prass - USA
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Sui te 300
Boca Raton FL 33487
(800) 272-7737
www.crcpress.cc.uk

Author : Al i Emadi
Descr i pti on: Thi s detai l ed ref erence provi des gui del i nes f or
the sel ecti on and uti l i zati on of el ectri c motors f or i mproved
motors and systems, and advanced power el ectroni c dri vers.
the f undamental s of power el ectroni cs appl i cabl e to el ectri c
motor dri ves, adj ustabl e speed dri ves and thei r appl i cati ons,
advanced swi tched rel uctance motor dri ves, and permanent
magnet and brushl ess DC motor dri ves.

Author s: Jacek Gi eras and Mi tchel l Wi ng
Descr i pti on: Demonstrates the constructi on of permanent
magnet (PM) motor dri ves and suppl i es ready-to-i mpl ement
sol uti ons f or common roadbl ocks. The author presents
expl ores modern computer-ai ded desi gn of PM motors,
el ectri cal dri ves.
0a|mar 0angaga Laarn|ng
Executi ve Woods
5 Maxwel l Dri ve
Cl i f ton Park, NY 12065
(800) 648-7450
www.deImarIearning.ccm
Author s: Wal ter N. Al eri ch and Stephen L. Herman
Descr i pti on: Provi des expl anati ons of motor control ci r-
cui ts, the hardware that makes up these ci rcui ts, appl i cati ons
of motor control ci rcui ts i n i ndustry, and troubl eshooti ng
motor control s. I t al so i ncl udes coverage of rel ay control s.
Author : Jeff rey J. Kel j i k
Descr i pti on: Provi des extensi ve coverage of el ectri c motors
and motor control s, f rom basi c pri nci pl es of el ectri cal
motors and control s to more compl ex real -worl d
appl i cati ons.

Author : Robert Carrow
Descr i pti on: Presents practi cal i nf ormati on on ac vari abl e
how to troubl eshoot them. Both i ndustri al and commerci al
di scussi on of i nstal l ati on i ssues, troubl eshooti ng, meteri ng,
si zi ng and sel ecti on, and energy savi ngs wi th vari abl e
Author : Mi chael Brumbach
Descr i pti on: Focuses on troubl eshooti ng and mai ntenance.
Di ff erent types of dri ve ci rcui ts are expl ai ned and practi cal
i nstructi on i s emphasi zed, wi th l i ttl e rel i ance on f ormul as.
Author s: Stephen L. Herman and Wal ter N. Al eri ch
Descr i pti on: Newl y revi sed, provi des easy-to-f ol l ow
i nstructi ons and essenti al i nf ormati on f or control l i ng
i ndustri al motors. Covers most commonl y used devi ces i n
contemporary i ndustri al setti ngs. Many ci rcui ts expl ai ned
concepts and appl i cati ons of control l ogi c.
F|sav|ar
30 Corporate Dri ve, Fourth Fl oor
Burl i ngton MA 01803
(781) 313-4700
www.eIsevier.ccm

Author : Austi n Hughes
Descr i pti on: For nonspeci al i st users of el ectri c motors
and dri ves, expl ai ni ng and compari ng most of the types
currentl y i n use wi th many exampl es and appl i cati ons.

Author : Bi mal K. Bose
Descr i pti on: Power el ectroni cs i s an area of extremel y
i mportant and rapi dl y changi ng technol ogy. Technol ogi cal
advancements i n the area contri bute to perf ormance
i mprovement and cost reducti on, wi th appl i cati ons
prol i f erati ng i n i ndustri al , commerci al , resi denti al , mi l i tary
and aerospace envi ronments. Thi s book i s meant to hel p
engi neers operati ng i n al l these areas stay up-to-date on
vehi cl e f or cl ari f yi ng i ncreasi ngl y compl ex theori es and
mathemati cs.

Author : I rvi ng Gottl i eb
Descr i pti on: Shows engi neers and desi gners how to
i ncorporate el ectri c motors i nto thei r products, taki ng thei r
experti se i nto account. The book off ers a practi cal approach
wi th mi ni mum theory, and shows how motors can be
uti l i zed i n vari ous types of el ectri c ci rcui ts and products.
Author s: H.P. Bl och and F.K. Gei tner
Descr i pti on: A f our-vol ume seri es of books f or machi nery
management at process pl ants. Each provi des a thorough
and dri ves i n each vol ume.
Vol ume 1: (3rd
Edi ti on); Vol ume 2:
(3rd Edi ti on); Vol ume 3:
(2nd Edi ti on);
Vol ume 4:
(2nd Edi ti on)

Author : Mal com Barnes
Descr i pti on: Provi des a f undamental understandi ng of the
i nstal l ati on, operati on, and troubl eshooti ng of vari abl e
speed dri ves, i ncl udi ng coverage of control wi ri ng, operat-
i ng modes, braki ng types, automati c restart, harmoni cs,
el ectrostati c di scharge, and EMC/EMI i ssues.
Tha Fa|rmont Prass, |nc.
700 I ndi an Trai l
Li l burn, GA 30047
(770) 925-9388
www.fairmcntpress.ccm

Author : Todd Li tman
Descr i pti on
-
cy and rel i abi l i ty of thei r el ectri c motor systems. I ncl uded
i s a comprehensi ve overvi ew of el ectri c motor systems
currentl y avai l abl e, strategi es f or avoi di ng typi cal probl ems
sel ecti on cri teri a, and operati on and mai ntenance f actors.
Author : Cl arence A. Phi pps
Descr i pti on: Does not go i nto compl ex mathemati cal
thumb hel pf ul i n appl yi ng rel ati vel y si mpl e dri ve systems.
I ntended f or techni ci ans wi thout a mathemati cal background.
|nst|tuta of F|actr|ca| & F|actron|cs Fng|naars
New York, NY 10016
(212) 419-7900
www.ieee.crg

Author : Davi d Fi nney
Descr i pti on: Covers vari ous types of ac motors, al ong wi th
thei r power swi tchi ng devi ces, i nverters, converters and sl i p
energy recovery systems.
|SA
67 Al exander Dri ve
Research Tri angl e Park, NC 27709
(919) 549-8411
www.isa.crg

Author : Davi d W. Spi tzer
Descr i pti on: Many appl i cati ons of vari abl e speed dri ve
technol ogy f al l i n the cracks between tradi ti onal engi neer-
i ng di sci pl i nes. Thi s new edi ti on of a venerabl e cl assi c
i ncorporates the addi ti onal i nsi ghts of the author over the
past decade and hel ps practi ci ng engi neers l earn about the
techni cal and economi c potenti al of thi s technol ogy. I t
presents the el ectri cal , hydraul i c, chemi cal , and i nstrumen-
tati on i nf ormati on necessary to techni cal l y eval uate and
economi cal l y j usti f y vari abl e speed dri ve appl i cati ons.
Jarsco Pub||sh|ng
18901 State Street
Corona, CA 92881
(909) 735-5239
www.jarsccpubIishing.ccm/guide.htmI

Author s: Arthur Wal l ace, Ral ph Ferraro, and John Benz
Descr i pti on: The pri mary purpose of the EPRI ASD
Appl i cati ons Gui de i s to provi de appl i cati on and f aci l i ty
engi neers wi th the basi c i nf ormati on needed to use ASDs.
But, the Gui de i s usef ul to anyone on the user si de i nvol ved
ASDs and motors. On the suppl i er si de, engi neers, sal es
and marketi ng prof essi onal s engaged i n ASDs and motors
book i s avai l abl e on CD-ROM.
Nc0raw-H|||
1221 Avenue of the Ameri cas
New York, NY 10020
(212) 904-2000
www.mcgraw-hiII.ccm

Author : Vedam Subrahmanyam
Descr i pti on: Comprehensi vel y covers the subj ect of el ectri c
dri ves and thei r i ndustri al appl i cati ons. The characteri sti cs
and dynami cs of el ectri c dri ves are di scussed, as wel l
as aspects of control , rati ng, and heati ng. Speci al
di scussi ons f eature worki ng exampl es of converters, and
mi croprocessors.

Author s: H. Wayne Beaty and James L. Ki rtl ey, Jr.
Descr i pti on: Provi des a f ul l range of i nf ormati on on
el ectri c motors used i n a vari ety of consumer, i ndustri al ,
and commerci al appl i cati ons. I t covers data on si zes,
shapes, perf ormance, el ectri cal and mechani cal parameters,
protecti on, and other f actors i nvol ved i n motor sel ecti on and
appl i cati on.

Author : Augi e Hand
Descr i pti on: Gi ves an overvi ew of each motor type s
components and operati on, suppl i es troubl eshooti ng
procedures, whi ch make concepts crystal -cl ear, and revi ew
home. Covers essenti al saf ety i ssues.

Author : Ri chard Val enti ne
Descr i pti on: Descri bes rel i abl e el ectroni c control s f or any
motor appl i cati on. Thi s resource assi sts i n the desi gn of
motor control s wi th mi crocontrol l ers and I GBT power
devi ces and provi des an i ntroducti on to di gi tal motor speed
control s. I t al so descri bes step-by-step practi cal methods
f or reduci ng EMI probl ems and provi des i nf ormati on
about control s rel i abi l i ty and i nsi ghts i nto motor control
di agnosti cs. Other topi cs i ncl ude dc and ac motor control
desi gns; automoti ve and appl i ance motor control s;
di gi tal control s; power semi conductors; mi crocontrol l ers;
communi cati on networks; and motor control test
procedures.
0xford Un|vars|ty Prass
198 Madi son Ave
New York, NY 10016
(212) 726-6000
www.cup.ccm/us/

Author : Takashi Kenj o
Descr i pti on: A transl ati on of the Japanese book ABC of
Motor s; descri bes the pri nci pl es, constructi on, and use of
di f f erent motor types and control l ers i n si mpl e, nontechni cal
terms.
Paarson Fducat|on P00
One Lake Street
Upper Saddl e Ri ver, NJ 07458
(201) 236-7000
www.pearscned.ccm

Author : Marti n Cl i ff ord
Descr i pti on: Descri bes the hi story and growth of motors.
The openi ng chapter descri bes the devel opment of the
el ectri c motor and the f undamental pri nci pal s of magneti sm.
The second chapter detai l s the physi cal and el ectri cal
characteri sti cs of motors i n general . The remai ni ng
chapters l ook at the f ol l owi ng technol ogi es i n detai l : dc
motors, ac motors, el ectroni cs f or motors, brushl ess dc
motors, steppi ng motors, and mechani cal dri ves. Thi s text
i s i ntended f or the reader wi th a techni cal background
who wants an understandi ng of the way motors work. The
book i s somewhat geared towards the reader who wi shes
to become i nvol ved i n motor repai r, as i t contai ns secti ons
on troubl eshooti ng f or each motor type. However, i t i s al so
a good general ref erence text on motors, al though energy
purchased as an el ectroni c f acsi mi l e at www.amazon.com.
-

Author s: Thomas E. Ki ssel l and Chri s Hi cks
Descr i pti on: Covers the theory of operati on, i nstal l ati on,
and troubl eshooti ng of motor control s and motors. I ncl udes
hundreds of pi ctures and di agrams pertai ni ng to the opera-
ti on and i nterf aci ng of motor control s. Thi s book can be
purchased as an el ectroni c f acsi mi l e at www.amazon.com.
Prant|ca-Ha||
One Lake Street
Upper Saddl e Ri ver, NJ 07458
(201) 236-7000
www.prenticehaII.ccm

Author : John E. Trai ster
Descr i pti on: Provi des i nf ormati on on theory, desi gn, and
practi cal appl i cati ons to hel p al l concerned wi th el ectri c and
el ectroni c motor control s. The compl ete spectrum of motor
control appl i cati ons i s exami ned.
Author : R. Kri shnan
Descr i pti on: Emphasi zes a systemati c approach to
motor dri ves based on physi cal i nsi ght and practi cal
each of the motor dri ves i s i l l ustrated wi th an i ndustri al
appl i cati on i n detai l at the end of chapters so readers can
rel ate theory to practi ce.
Spr|ngar
233 Spri ng Street
New York, NY 10013
(212) 460-1500
www.springer.ccm

Author s: Ani bal de Al mei da, Paol o Bertol di , and
Werner Leonhard
Descr i pti on: Thi s book covers the basi cs and the state of
and cost-eff ecti ve energy savi ngs. I t descri bes recent
devel opments i n advanced motor technol ogi es such as
motor technol ogi es, though enabl i ng a huge amount of
el ectri ci ty to be saved, sti l l have not been wi del y adopted.
The book presents barri ers to the adopti on of those
technol ogi es and f eatures pol i ci es to promote the l arge scal e
experi ences carri ed out so f ar i n di f f erent parts of the worl d.

Author s: Francesco Parasi l i ti and Paol o Bertol di
Descr i pti on: Thi s book reports the state of the art of energy-
and cost-eff ecti ve energy savi ngs. I t i ncl udes the recent
devel opments i n advanced el ectri cal motor end-use devi ces
(pumps, f ans and compressors) by some of the l argest
manuf acturers. Pol i ci es and programs to promote the l arge
market transf ormati on are f eatured i n the book, descri bi ng
the experi ences carri ed out i n di ff erent parts of the worl d.

Author : Howard E. Jordan
Descr i pti on: Eval uates the energy savi ngs potenti al of
of motor and ASD technol ogy and provi des a step-by-step
descri pti on of the process of sel ecti ng and appl yi ng motors.
f actor, and ac motor control .
TA8 8ooks, a 0|v|s|on of Nc0raw-H|||, |nc.
1221 Avenue of the Ameri cas
New York, NY 10020
(212) 904-2000
www.mcgraw-hiII.ccm

Author : I rvi ng M. Gottl i eb
Descr i pti on: Exami nes present and theoreti cal i nterf aces
between motors and thei r control systems. The book s
caref ul l y matchi ng them wi th wel l -desi gned, state-of -the-art
control s. Probl ems wi th el ectri c vehi cl es are al so di scussed.
w||ay-|FFF Prass
10475 Crosspoi nt Boul evard
I ndi anapol i s, I N 46256
(317) 572-3000
www.wiIey.ccm

Edi tor : Bi mal K. Bose
Descr i pti on: A compendi um of papers f rom el even wel l -
known prof essi onal s to provi de comprehensi ve coverage of
power el ectroni cs and ac dri ve technol ogy. Topi cs covered
i ncl ude power semi conductor devi ces, el ectri cal machi nes,
0thar Pub||cat|ons
(Reports, 0uides, Nauuals, aud 8taudards}
Advancad Fnargy
909 Capabi l i ty Dri ve, Sui te 2100
Ral ei gh, NC 27606
(919) 857-9000
www.advancedenergy.crg

Author : Advanced Energy
Descr i pti on: Outl i nes a pol i cy f or cost-eff ecti ve manage-
ment of motor purchase and repai r and i s based on
comments f rom i ndustri al customers, el ectri c uti l i ti es,
motor suppl i ers and repai r shops.
Amar|can Pub||c Powar Assoc|at|on
1875 Connecti cut Avenue NW, Sui te 1200
(202) 467-2900
www.appanet.crg

Author s: Maura C. Ryan and Ri chard Okrasa
Descr i pti on: One of a seri es of product knowl edge
ref erence gui des ori gi nal l y publ i shed by Ontari o Hydro. A
smal l f ormat (7 x 5 ) gui de contai ns chapters on how ASDs
compari sons of ASDs, f eatures of ASDs, economi cs, and
harmoni c di storti on. Uses nontechni cal l anguage and i s
i ntended f or uti l i ty representati ves or customers who want a
short pri mer on ASDs.
U.S. Edition
Author: Ontari o Hydro
Descri pti on: One of a seri es of product knowl edge ref erence
gui des publ i shed by Ontari o Hydro. The U.S. Edi ti on i s
avai l abl e f rom the Ameri can Publ i c Power Associ ati on
(APPA). Smal l f ormat (7 x 5 ) and contai ns chapters on
of motors, motor control s, and mai ntenance of motors.
Uses nontechni cal l anguage and i s i ntended f or uti l i ty
representati ves or customers who want a short pri mer on
motors.
8onnav|||a Powar Adm|n|strat|on

P.O. Box 3621
Portl and, OR 97208
(503) 230-7334 or (800) 622-4520
www.bpa.gcv

Authors: V. Schuel er, P. Lei stner, and J. Dougl ass
Descri pti on: Characteri zes the motor repai r i ndustry i n the
Uni ted States and summari zes current motor repai r and
motor repai r practi ce and recommends strategi es f or
overcomi ng those barri ers.
Boston MA 02114
(617) 589-3949
www.cee1.crg

Author: I l ene Mason
Descri pti on: Provi des i nf ormati on about the i ncenti ve
programs avai l abl e to commerci al and i ndustri al customers
motor system opti mi zati on proj ects f rom uti l i ti es and
summary i ncl udes a general descri pti on of terms as wel l
programs. An i nteracti ve map i s i ncl uded to hel p l ocate
programs throughout the U.S. and Canada.
F|actr|c Powar 8asaarch |nst|tuta
(800) 313-3774
www.epri.ccm

Author : J.A. Ol i ver
Descr i pti on: A real i sti c mai ntenance schedul e f or the f our
types of el ectri c motors commonl y f ound i n nucl ear and
f ossi l -f uel power pl ants, based on revi ews of manuf acturer,
i nducti on motors, ac wound-rotor motors, ac synchronous-
type motors, and dc motors are exami ned and descri bed,
as are tests that wi l l rel i abl y predi ct these f ai l ures. The
preventi ve mai ntenance schedul e outl i ned i s l ess onerous
than those prescri bed by manuf acturers, but, accordi ng to
F|actr|ca| Apparatus Sarv|ca Assoc|at|on
1331 Baur Boul evard
St. Loui s, MO 63132
(314) 993-2220
www.easa.crg

Author : El ectri cal Apparatus Servi ce Associ ati on
Descr i pti on:
management system. Based on the i nternati onal I SO
el ectri cal apparatus servi ce organi zati ons can use i t wi th
mi ni mal assi stance.

Descr i pti on: Based on a j oi nt study by EASA and the
Associ ati on of El ectri cal and Mechani cal Trades (AEMT)
of the Uni ted Ki ngdom, thi s publ i cati on concl udes that usi ng

The report provi des compl ete test data, extensi ve back-
ground i nf ormati on about test procedures and methodol ogy,
i nf ormati on about best practi ce repai r/rewi nd procedures,
resources f or f urther readi ng, and an enti re chapter on
repai r/repl ace consi derati ons.

Descr i pti on: Thi s bookl et provi des hel p i n maki ng the
best deci si on when deci di ng whether to repai r or repl ace
ac motors, and hi ghl i ghts the i mportance of havi ng an
i mpl ementati on pl an ready bef ore f ai l ures occur. I nf ormati on
when maki ng repai r/repl acement deci si ons i s al so i ncl uded.

Descr i pti on: Thi s pamphl et provi des recommendati ons
whi ch contai n saf e val ues and correct procedures f or
0|oba| Fng|naar|ng 0ocumants
15 I nverness Way East
Engl ewood, CO 80112
(800) 624-3974, ext. 1950
www.gIcbaI.ihs.ccm

Descr i pti on: Provi des practi cal i nf ormati on concerni ng
rati ngs, constructi on, testi ng, perf ormance, and manuf acture
of ac and dc motors and generators.

Descr i pti on: Provi des practi cal i nf ormati on concerni ng the
proper sel ecti on and appl i cati on of pol yphase i nducti on and
synchronous motors i ncl udi ng i nstal l ati on, operati on, and
mai ntenance.
|FFF
3 Park Avenue
17th Fl oor
New York, NY 10016
(212) 419-7900
www.ieee.crg

Author : John D. Kueck et al .
Descr i pti on: Eval uates consi derati ons that aff ect the
sel ecti on of premi um and EPAct motors. Avai l abl e i n I EEE
Tr ansacti ons on Energy Conver si on, Vol ume 13, No.2,
June 1998.

Author : Sponsors of Motor Deci si ons Matter
Descr i pti on: A resource f or those i nterested i n devel opi ng
a motor management pl an, brochure provi des step-by-
step gui del i nes, tool s and resources f or devel opi ng and
i mpl ementi ng a customi zed pl an that sui ts i ndi vi dual
organi zati onal needs.
Panton Nad|a, |nc., and Machine 0esign Magazine
1300 East 9th Street
Cl evel and OH 44114
(216) 931-9458
www.pentcn.ccm
www.eIectricmctcrs.machinedesign.ccm

Author : Machi ne Desi gn Magazi ne
Descr i pti on: Onl i ne ref erence center f or i nf ormati on on
el ectri c motors i ncl udes descri pti ons of di ff erent ac/dc
motor types, i nf ormati on on suppl i ers, and recent arti cl es on
el ectri c motors.
8ocky Nounta|n |nst|tuta
2317 Snowmass Creek Road
Snowmass, CO 81654
(970) 927-3851
www.rmi.crg/

Author : Amory B. Lovi ns et al
Descr i pti on: Publ i shed by Competi tek, an i nf ormati on
servi ce of the Rocky Mountai n I nsti tute. Cri ti cal l y revi ews
di verse data on dri vepower usage, the documented cost and
l ess i nput energy. Compares empi ri cal savi ngs f or more
than 30 energy savi ng opti ons and expl ores thei r numerous
i nteracti ons.
I ndustri al Technol ogi es Program
FF8F |nformat|on 0antar
877-337-3463
www.eere.energy.gcv/infcrmaticncenter

Author s: Gi l bert McCoy and John Dougl ass
Descr i pti on: Provi des comprehensi ve i nf ormati on on
el ectri cal motor management, i ncl udi ng el ectri cal suppl y,
sel ecti on, i nventory management, mai ntenance, and repai r.
Assi sts engi neers i n i denti f yi ng and eval uati ng energy
conservati on opportuni ti es to reduce energy costs, i mprove
i ncrease producti vi ty.
Un|vars|ty of wyom|ng
El ectri cal Engi neeri ng Department
1000 East Uni versi ty Avenue, Department 3295
Larami e, WY 82071
(307) 766-6268
www.uwyc.edu

Author : Sadrul Ul a et al .
Descr i pti on: Thi s document was prepared i n a three-
way cooperati ve eff ort between the Bonnevi l l e Power
Western Area Power Admi ni strati on. The report exami nes
motors. I t i ncl udes secti ons on motors, control s, el ectri cal
cl eani ng, and management, as wel l as esti mates of the
combi ned eff ects of usi ng a system approach i n i mprovi ng
l argel y a condensati on of a report ti tl ed The State of the Art:
Dri vepower whi ch i s descri bed el sewhere i n thi s secti on.
Softwara
am2so|ut|ons
PO Box 190921
Boi se, I D 83719-0921
(208) 322-6999
www.em2scIuticns.ccm
em2006
Devel oper : em2sol uti ons wi th support f rom the Northwest

Descr i pti on: An i ntroductory motor system survey and
and no l oad amperage, new and rewi nd pri ces f or motors
7 thru 300 hp, 1100 thru 3600 RPM, TEFC and ODP.
Features i ntui ti ve motor management di recti on, hi stori cal
compari son, i mbal ance cal cul ati on, motor systems total s,
and servi ce center reporti ng capabi l i ti es.
The 1-2-3 Approach to M otor M anagement
Devel oper s: Sponsors of Motor Deci si ons Matter
Descr i pti on: Thi s Mi crosof t Excel
TM
motor management. By enteri ng namepl ate data f rom a f ew
representati ve motors, the hel ps i denti f y
motor opportuni ti es wi thi n a f aci l i ty. The 1-2-3 Approach
i s an i ntroductory tool desi gned as a gateway to more
comprehensi ve motor management tool s and strategi es.
U. S. 0apartmant of Fnargy
M otor M aster+ 4.0
Devel oper : U.S. Department of Energy I ndustri al
Technol ogi es Program
Descr i pti on:
management sof tware tool whi ch i ncl udes a catal og of
more than 20,000 ac motors. Features motor i nventory
anal ysi s, savi ngs eval uati on, energy accounti ng, and
envi ronmental reporti ng capabi l i ti es.
M otor M aster+ I nter national
Descr i pti on: I ncl udes many of the capabi l i ti es and f eatures
of MotorMaster+ 4.0, but al l ows users to eval uate repai r/
repl acement opti ons on a broader range of motors. The
user can conduct anal yses i n di f f erent currenci es, cal cul ate
def aul ts, and determi ne best avai l abl e motors. The tool
Par|od|ca|s
A3hBA JcurnaI
Ameri can Soci ety of Heati ng, Ref ri gerati ng, and Ai r-
Condi ti oni ng Engi neers
Atl anta, GA
www.ashrae.crg
0cnsuIting-3pecifying ngineer
Cahners Publ i shi ng Company
A Di vi si on of Reed El sevi er Properi tes, I nc.
Des Pl ai nes, I L
www.csemag.ccm
| 0cntrcI 3ystems Magazine
I nsti tute of El ectri cal and El ectroni cs Engi neers
Control Systems Soci ety (CSS)
I ndi anapol i s, I N
www.ieee.crg
| |ndustry AppIicaticns Magazine
I ndustry Appl i cati ons Soci ety, (I AS)
I ndi anapol i s, I N
www.ieee.crg
| Pcwer ngineering Magazine
Power Engi neeri ng Soci ety (PES)
Los Angel es, CA
www.ieee.crg
|ndustriaI Maintenance & PIant 0peraticn (|MP0)
A Di vi si on of Reed El sevi er Properti es, I nc.
Des Pl ai nes, I L
www.impcmag.ccm
Machine 0esign Magazine
Penton Medi a I nc.
Cl evel and, Ohi o
www.machinedesign.ccm
MechanicaI ngineering
Ameri can Soci ety of Mechani cal Engi neers (ASME)
New York, NY
www.memagazine.crg
PIant ngineering
A Di vi si on of Reed El sevi er Properti es, I nc.
Des Pl ai nes, I L
www.pIantengineering.ccm
Tra|n|ng 0oursas
Assoc|at|on of Fnargy Fng|naars
4025 Pl easantdal e Road, Sui te 420
Atl anta, GA 30340
(770) 447-5083
www.aeecenter.crg
Semi nars off ered f or vari ous topi cs of
i nterest, i ncl udi ng motor systems, energy management,
conservati on, and economi cs.
F|actr|c Powar 8asaarch |nst|tuta
(800) 313-3774
www.epri.ccm
EPRI conducts hundreds of events
throughout the year, i ncl udi ng symposi ums, workshops,
conf erences, and trai ni ng courses.
F|actr|ca| Apparatus Sarv|ca Assoc|at|on, |nc.
1331 Baur Bl vd.
St. Loui s, MO 63132
(314) 993-2220
www.easa.ccm
EASA off ers i ts members and others wi th
state-of -the-art technol ogy f or motors, dri ves, and other
such as motors, pumps, and i ndustri al mai ntenance i ssues.
|nst|tuta of F|actr|ca| and F|actron|cs Fng|naar|ng
New York, NY 10016
(212) 419-7900
www.ieee.crg
The I EEE provi des l earni ng opportuni ti es
wi thi n the engi neeri ng sci ences, research and technol ogy.
www.eere.energy.gcv/industry/bestpractices/training
DOE off ers a one-day workshop coveri ng
key el ements of motor system management, such as
appl i cati ons, i nventory tracki ng, mai ntenance, repai r,
repl acement deci si ons, and the i mpact and mai ntenance of
the MotorMaster+ sof tware can hel p f orm the structure of a
motor management program, reduce the work i nvol ved, and
f aci l i tate deci si on-maki ng.
Appand|cas
Appand|cas
Appeudix A. A 0lossar] of Basic Notor 8]stem Terms
Thi s appendi x contai ns a gl ossary of the mai n terms associ ated wi th motor and dri ve systems.
Appeudix B. Notor Tip 8heets
Appeudix 0.
si zes and types.
Appeudix D. Notor Repair 8ervice 0euter 0hecklist
Thi s contai ns a checkl i st f or motor repai r f aci l i ti es.
Appeudix E. 0uideliues for 0ommeuts
Thi s appendi x provi des a pl ace f or readers to suggest changes and i mprovements to thi s sourcebook.
Appand|x A: 0|ossary of Tarms
Appand|x A: 0|ossary of 8as|c
Notor Systam Tarms
Here are some of the pri nci pal terms associ ated wi th motor
and dri ve systems. For more, pl ease see the I EEE Standard
Di cti onary of El ectri cal and El ectroni cs Terms, The I nsti tute
of El ectri cal and El ectroni cs Engi neers, I nc., New York,
1984.
adjustab|a spaad dr|va (AS0} - An el ectri c dri ve desi gned to
provi de easi l y operabl e means f or speed adj ustment of the
a|r gap - A separati ng space between two parts of magneti c
materi al , the combi nati on servi ng as a path f or magneti c
hydrogen and represents cl earance between rotor and stator
of an el ectri c machi ne.
a|tarnat|ng currant - A peri odi c current the average val ue
otherwi se, the term ref ers to a current whi ch reverses at
regul ar recurri ng i nterval s of ti me and whi ch has al ternatel y
posi ti ve and negati ve val ues.)
amb|ant - I mmedi ate surroundi ngs or vi ci ni ty.
amps -
moti on of 1 coul omb of charge or 6.24 X 1018 el ectrons
past any cross secti on i n 1 second.
AhS| - Ameri can Nati onal Standards I nsti tute.
armatura - The member of an el ectri c machi ne i n whi ch an
al ternati ng vol tage i s generated by vi rtue of rel ati ve moti on
uni versal , al ternati ng current seri es, and repul si on-type
machi nes, the term i s commonl y appl i ed to the enti re rotor.
ASH8AF - Ameri can Soci ety of Heati ng, Ref ri gerati ng, and
Ai r-Condi ti oni ng Engi neers
ASNF - Ameri can Soci ety of Mechani cal Engi neers
ASTN - Ameri can Soci ety f or Testi ng and Materi al s
ba|anc|ng - The process of addi ng (or removi ng) wei ght on
a rotati ng part i n order to move the center of gravi ty toward
the axi s of rotati on.
bars - Axi al conductors i n a rotor cage.
baar|ng |ossas - The power l osses resul ti ng f rom f ri cti on i n
the beari ngs.
The operati ng condi ti on at
braka horsapowar (8HP} - Mechani cal energy consumed at
a rate of 33,000-f t. l bs. per mi nute; a consumpti on rati ng.
braakaway torqua -
devel op to break away i ts l oad f rom rest to rotati on.
braakdown torqua -
an i nducti on motor (or a synchronous motor operati ng as
an i nducti on motor) devel ops when the pri mary wi ndi ng
i s connected f or runni ng operati on, at normal operati ng
speed decreases to standsti l l , i s not consi dered to have a
brushas - A conductor, usual l y composed i n part of
some f orm of the el ement carbon, servi ng to mai ntai n an
el ectri c connecti on between stati onary and movi ng parts
accordi ng to the types of materi al used, as f ol l ows: carbon,
carbon-graphi te, el ectrographi te, graphi te, and metal -
graphi te.
8tu -
temperature of 1 pound of water by 1F. The Btu/hr.
Btu/hr = (Temperature Ri se) x (CFM) x 1.085.
burnout ovan - Heat cl eani ng oven used f or stri ppi ng
wi ndi ngs f rom a core. These are someti mes cal l ed roasti ng
ovens. They operate at temperatures up to 750F and may
have water spray systems to control temperature transi ents
and secondary combusti on to control emi ssi ons. They are
di sti ngui shed f rom l ower temperature baki ng ovens, whi ch
are used to cure varni sh.
caga -
capac|tor - A devi ce, the pri mary purpose of whi ch i s to
i ntroduce capaci tance i nto an el ectri c ci rcui t. Capaci tors
capaci tors, mi ca capaci tors, paper capaci tors, etc.
co|| - One or more turns of wi re that i nsert i nto a si ngl e pai r
of core sl ots.
co|| supports - Ri ng-l i ke structures or i ndi vi dual bl ocki ng
between coi l s to whi ch a motor s end turns are ti ed to add
ri gi di ty. Someti mes cal l ed surge ri ngs .
commutator - An assembl y of conducti ng members
i nsul ated f rom one another, i n the radi al -axi al pl ane, agai nst
part of the ci rcui t to another by sl i di ng contact.
comprassor - A devi ce that i ncreases the pressure of a gas
through mechani cal acti on. Compressors are used to provi de
compressed ai r system to f aci l i ti es and i n mechani cal vapor
compressi on systems to provi de cool i ng and ref ri gerati on.
consumpt|on - The amount of energy used by a motor
system, measured i n ki l owatt-hours (kWh)
cora - The magneti c i ron structure of a motor s rotor or
stator. I t i s compri sed of stacked sheet i ron.
cora |ossas - The power di ssi pated i n a magneti c core
subj ected to a ti me-varyi ng magneti zi ng f orce. Note: Core
l oss i ncl udes hysteresi s and eddy-current l osses of the core.
corros|on - The deteri orati on of a substance (usual l y a
metal ) because of a reacti on wi th i ts envi ronment.
curva, parformanca - A graphi c representati on of pressure
curva, systam - A graphi c representati on of the pressure
damand -
ti me.
damand charga - That porti on of the charge f or el ectri c
servi ce based upon a customer s demand.
d|ract currant - A uni di recti onal current i n whi ch the
changes i n val ue are ei ther zero or so smal l that they may
be negl ected. (As ordi nari l y used, the term desi gnates a
practi cal l y non-pul si ng current)
FASA - El ectri cal Apparatus Servi ce Associ ati on, a trade
associ ati on that serves many areas of the el ectri cal repai r
market, i ncl udi ng motor rewi nd f aci l i ti es.
addy currant coup||ng - A type of adj ustabl e speed dri ve
to determi ne the amount of sl i p between the motor and the
The rati o of the usef ul output to the i nput
axc|t|ng currant - Component of el ectri c current used to
fan - The part that provi des an ai r stream f or venti l ati ng the
machi ne.
frama s|za - A set of physi cal di mensi ons of motors
as establ i shed by Nati onal El ectri cal Manuf acturers
Associ ati on (NEMA) f or i nterchangeabi l i ty between
manuf acturers. Di mensi ons i ncl ude; shaf t di ameter, shaf t
hei ght, and motor mounti ng f ootpri nt.
fraquancy - The number of peri ods per uni t ti me.
fr|ct|on/w|ndaga |ossas -
the unexci ted machi ne at rated speed wi th the brushes i n
contact, deducti ng that porti on of the l oss that resul ts f rom:
(1) Forci ng the gas through any part of the venti l ati ng
system that i s external to the machi ne and cool er (i f used).
di rect-connected apparatus.
fu|| |oad spaad - The speed that the output shaf t of the dri ve
attai ns wi th rated l oad connected and wi th the dri ve adj usted
to del i ver rated output at rated speed. Note: I n ref erri ng
to the speed wi th f ul l l oad connected and wi th the dri ve
at rated speed, i t i s customary to speak of the f ul l -l oad speed
under the (stated) condi ti ons.
fu|| |oad torqua -
horsepower at f ul l l oad speed.
harmon|cs - A si nusoi dal component of a peri odi c wave
hartz (Hz} -
h|gh potant|a| tast - Test of i nsul ati on i ntegri ty by
appl i cati on of a hi gher than namepl ate rated ac or dc vol tage
between el ectri cal wi ndi ng or ci rcui t el ements and ground.
Al so cal l ed hi pot test
horsapowar (hp} - A measure of the amount of the work a
motor can perf orm i n a peri od of ti me, 33,000 f oot-l bs. per
mi nute or 0.746 kW.
|nduct|on motor - The si mpl est and, by f ar, most
commonpl ace ac motor desi gn. The i nducti on motor rotor
i s si mpl e, havi ng nei ther permanent magnets, external l y
exci ted el ectro-magnets, nor sal i ent (proj ecti ng) pol es. The
rotor contai ns a conducti ng structure, whi ch i s exci ted by
magneti c i nducti on f rom the stator wi thout necessi ty of
brushes or other di rect contact.
|nart|a - Tendency of an obj ect to remai n i n the state i t i s i n.
For motors, i nerti a general l y ref ers to the resi stance of the
rotor, coupl i ng and l oad to accel erati on.
|nsu|at|on - Materi al or a combi nati on of sui tabl e non-
conducti ng materi al s that provi de i sol ati on of two parts at
di f f erent vol tages.
|nvartar duty - I ntended f or bei ng powered by a dc to
ac i nverter. An i nverter compri ses the output stage of al l
el ectroni c adj ustabl e speed dri ves, whi ch are al so known
31 of NEMA MG-1 provi des recommended standards f or
I nverter Duty motors.
|nvartar - A machi ne, devi ce, or system that changes di rect-
current power to al ternati ng current power.
journa| - Regi on on a shaf t where a beari ng i s l ocated. The
beari ng bore. Wi th sl eeve beari ngs, the j ournal i s the actual
beari ng surf ace on the shaf t.
k||owatt -
watts.
|oad factor - The rati o of the average l oad over a desi gnated
peri od of ti me to the peak l oad occurri ng i n that peri od.
|ockad rotor torqua -
whi ch i t wi l l devel op at rest f or al l angul ar posi ti ons of the
|ossas - Motor i nput power that i s l ost rather than bei ng
converted to shaf t power. The l ost power mani f ests as heat
i n vari ous parts of the motor structure.
|ow vo|taga - Vol tage rati ngs not exceedi ng 600 VAC.
hF0 - Nati onal El ectri cal Code.
hFNA - The Nati onal El ectri cal Manuf acturers Associ ati on;
the trade associ ati on establ i shi ng standards of di mensi ons,
rati ngs, encl osures, i nsul ati on, and other desi gn cri teri a f or
po|as - Pol es are the total number of magneti c north/south
The number of pol es i s determi ned by the wi ndi ng desi gn
and the motor speed i s i nversel y rel ated to the number of
pol es.
pound-foot (|b ft} -
ras|stanca, |nsu|at|on - Resi stance between poi nts that are
supposed to be el ectri cal l y i sol ated.
ras|stanca, w|nd|ng - Resi stance of the wi ndi ng measured
between each pai r of l i ne connecti ons. Rewi ndi ng shoul d
repl i cate ori gi nal resi stance. Changed resi stance af ter
rewi ndi ng may i ndi cate al tered wi ndi ng pattern, i ncorrect
wi re gauge, or a turn mi scount.
rotor - The rotati ng part of an ac i nducti on motor that
rotor |ossas -
2
R where I i s the current i n the rotor and R
i s the resi stance of the rotor ci rcui t).
rpm - Revol uti ons per mi nute.
sarv|ca factor - A mul ti pl i er that, when appl i ed to the rated
power, i ndi cates a permi ssi bl e power l oadi ng that may
mul ti pl i er.
s||p -
synchronous speed and the actual speed of a rotor, to (B) the
synchronous speed, expressed as a rati o, or as a percentage.
squ|rra| caga - Thi s i s the current conducti ng assembl y
used i n most i nducti on motor rotors. Someti mes cal l ed a
rotor cage. I t i s typi cal l y cast al umi num i n smal l er motors
and f abri cated of copper al l oy i n l arger motors.
saparators - I nsul ati ng spacers used to separate coi l s of
separate phases wi thi n a sl ot. Al so cal l ed sl ot sti cks .
stator - The stati onary part of a motor s magneti c ci rcui t.
I n i nducti on motors i t i s the outer annul ar i ron structure
contai ni ng the power wi ndi ngs.
stator |ossas -
2
R, where I i s the stator current
and R i s the resi stance of the stator ci rcui t).
stray |oad |ossas - The l osses due to eddy currents i n
copper and addi ti onal core l osses i n the i ron, produced
i ncl udi ng that porti on of the core l oss associ ated wi th the
resi stance drop.
surga - A transi ent wave of current, potenti al , or power i n
an el ectri cal ci rcui t.
synchronous spaad - The speed of the rotati on of the
tamparatura r|sa - Temperature i ncrease above ambi ent.
Nati onal El ectri cal Manuf acturers Associ ati on provi des
standards f or temperature ri se of f ul l y l oaded motors based
upon i nsul ati on cl ass and other motor parameters. Ensuri ng
that temperature ri se remai ns wi thi n these l i mi ts duri ng no-
l oad runni ng i s a worthwhi l e saf eguard though i t does not
prove that temperature ri se wi l l remai n wi thi n l i mi ts at rated
l oad.
thraa-phasa - Commonpl ace ac el ectri cal servi ce i nvol vi ng
three conductors of f set i n phase f rom each other. The
torqua - A f orce that produces rotati on, commonl y
measured i n l b.-f t. or l b.-i n.
trans|ants - A change i n the steady-state condi ti on of
vol tage or current, or both. As used i n thi s gui de, transi ents
occurri ng i n control ci rcui ts are a resul t of rapi d changes
i n the power ci rcui ts to whi ch they are coupl ed. The
are determi ned by resi stance, i nductance, and capaci tance of
the power and control ci rcui ts and the degree of coupl i ng.
3.0 MHz have been observed where l i ttl e or no protecti on
was provi ded. Transi ents may be caused by l i ghtni ng
stroke, a f aul t, or by swi tchi ng operati on, such as the
openi ng of a di sconnect, and may readi l y be transf erred
f rom one conductor to another by means of el ectrostati c or
el ectromagneti c coupl i ng.
var|ab|a fraquancy dr|va - A type of adj ustabl e speed dri ve
a motor. Si nce motor speed i s l i nearl y rel ated to el ectri cal
avoi di ng the need f or an i ntermedi ate coupl i ng between the
watt - The uni t of power i n the I nternati onal System of
rate of 1 j oul e per second.
w|nd|ngs - An assembl y of coi l s desi gned to act i n consort
Appand|x 8: Notor T|p Shaats
The I ndustri al Technol ogi es Program has devel oped the f ol l owi ng ti p sheets
through i ts BestPracti ces acti vi ti es.
Currentl y Avai l abl e:
3. Extend the Operati ng Li f e of Your Motor
4. The I mportance of Motor Shaf t Al i gnment
5. Repl ace V-Bel ts wi th Cogged or Synchronous Bel ts
7. El i mi nate Vol tage Unbal ance
8. El i mi nate Excessi ve I n-pl ant Di stri buti on System Vol tage Drops
9. I mprove Motor Operati on at Off -desi gn Vol tages
10. Turn Motors Of f When Not i n Use
13. Magneti cal l y Coupl ed Adj ustabl e Speed Motor Dri ves
15. Mi ni mi ze Adverse Motor and Adj ustabl e Speed Dri ve I nteracti ons
of motor systems and can be downl oaded f rom the I TP Web si te at www.eere.
Appand|x 8: T|p Shaat humbar 1
wheo to P0rchase hNA Prem|0m
II|c|eocy Notors
NEMA Premi um ef f i ci ency motors shoul d be consi dered for new motor
motors shoul d al so be consi dered when repai ri ng or rewi ndi ng f ai l ed standard-
ef f i ci ency motors or as repl acements f or ol der, operabl e l ower-ef f i ci ency motors
parti cul arl y when the exi sti ng motor has been rewound or i s oversi zed and
underl oaded.
I n August of 2001, the Nati onal El ectri cal Manuf acturers Associ ati on (NEMA)
i mpl emented a new NEMA Premi um Energy Ef f i ci ency Motor Standard. Under
thi s vol untary program, a motor may be marketed as a NEMA Premi um motor i f
i t meets or exceeds a set of NEMA mi ni mum f ul l -l oad ef f i ci ency l evel s. These
l evel s are hi gher than the mi ni mum f ul l -l oad ef f i ci ency standards for energy-
ef f i ci ent motors under the Energy Pol i cy Act of 1992 (EPAct).
NEMA Premi um motor standards appl y to NEMA Desi gn A and B, three-phase
l ow- and medi um-vol tage i nducti on motors rated f rom 1-500 horsepower (hp) and
desi gned for servi ce at 5,000 vol ts or l ess. Motors wi th speeds of 1200, 1800, and
3600 revol uti ons per mi nute (rpm) wi th open dri p-proof (ODP), expl osi on-proof ,
and total l y encl osed f an-cool ed (TEFC) encl osures are i ncl uded.
NEMA Premi um motors are parti cul arl y cost-ef fecti ve when annual operati on
exceeds 2,000 hours, where uti l i ty rates are hi gh, when motor repai r costs are a
si gni f i cant f racti on of the pri ce of a repl acement motor, or where el ectri c uti l i ty
motor rebates or other conservati on i ncenti ves are avai l abl e.
NEMA Premi um motors typi cal l y cost 10% to 15% more than thei r energy-
ef f i ci ent counterparts. Annual energy savi ngs are dependent upon operati ng
prof i l e, duty cycl e, and ef f i ci ency gai n. Exampl es of annual savi ngs due to usi ng
NEMA Premi um motors i nstead of motors that j ust meet the EPAct energy-
ef f i ci ent motor standard are gi ven i n Tabl e 1.
Tab|e 1. Aoo0a| Sav|ogs Irom Spec|Iy|og hNA Prem|0m Notors
Horsepower
Full-load Notor Efficieuc] (}
Auuual 8aviugs from Use of a
hENA Premium Notor
Euerg] Efficieut
Notor
hENA Premium
Efficieuc] Notor
Auuual Euerg]
8aviugs, kwh
Dollar 8aviugs
$/]ear
10 89.5 91.7 1,200 $O0
25 92.4 98.O 1,558 78
50 98.0 94.5 8,820 191
100 94.5 95.4 4,470 228
200 95.0 9O.2 11,755 588
hote. Based ou purchase of a 1,800 rpm totall] euclosed fau-cooled motor with 8,000 hours per ]ear of
operatiou, 75 load, aud au electrical rate of $0.05/kwh.
S0ggested Act|oos
|ccu cr ere|a| pu|pce, 2o |c o00
|p |arda|d e|||c|erc] rc|c| ued
rc|e ||ar 2,000 |cu| pe| ]ea|.
Cc||ec| rarep|a|e ard app||ca||cr
da|a ard ||er reau|e ||e upp|]
.c||ae ard arpe|ae |c| ||ee |r-
e|.|ce rc|c|.
|c ac||e.e cc|-e||ec||.e ard ere|]
e|||c|erc] |eu||, ard |a rc|c| |c|
app|cp||a|e ac||cr. |c| e/arp|e,
|ep|ace |rred|a|e|] c| upcr |a||u|e
W||| a \E|A P|er|ur c| Ere|]
E|||c|er| rc|c|, |eW|rd a| |a||u|e
W||| |epa|| pec|||ca||cr ard |eccr-
rerded u|de||re.
pec|||ca||cr |c| |cW-.c||ae rc|c|.
8eso0rces
U.S. 0apartmant of Fnargy-Ccr|ac|
||e EERE |r|c|ra||cr Cer|e| a| 8//-
88/-84o8 |c c||a|r c||ed pu|||ca||cr c|
|c |e(ue| add|||cra| |r|c|ra||cr cr
rc|c| ard d||.er-e(u|prer| ere|]
e|||c|erc] cppc||ur|||e. Add|||cra|
|ecu|ce ard |r|c|ra||cr cr ||a|r|r |
a|c a.a||a||e a| ||e Be|P|ac||ce we|
|e|p|ac||ce.
xamp|e
An ol d, 75-hp standard ef f i ci ency boi l er f orced-draf t f an motor i s to be repl aced
wi th a NEMA Premi um ef f i ci ency motor. The exi sti ng motor operates at a 75%
l oad for 8,000 hours per year wi th an ef f i ci ency (
st d
) of 91.0%. Determi ne the
annual energy savi ngs i f the repl acement motor has an ef f i ci ency (
PE
) of 95.4%
and el ectri ci ty i s pri ced at $0.05/ kWh.
Ener gy Savings = hp x l oad x 0.746 x hours x (100/
st d
100/
PE
)
= 75 x 0.75 x 0.746 x 8,000 x (100/91 100/95.4) = 17,014 kWh/year
Ener gy Cost Savings = 17,014 x $0.05 = $851/year
Over a 10-year operati ng peri od for a 75-hp motor, the purchase pri ce mi ght
represent j ust 2% of the total motor i nstal l ati on and operati ng costs. Energy and
mai ntenance costs account for the remai ni ng 98%. Even a smal l i mprovement i n
motor operati ng ef f i ci ency can produce si gni f i cant energy and dol l ar savi ngs and
provi de a rapi d return on i nvest ment.
Some uti l i ty compani es and publ i c agenci es have rebate programs i n pl ace to
encourage customers to upgrade thei r exi sti ng standard-ef f i ci ency motors to
NEMA Premi um ef f i ci ency motors. Yet, to accuratel y esti mate energy savi ngs
motor.
Ef f i ci ency i s output power di vi ded by i nput power, yet most of the methods and
devi ces attempt to assess l osses to ci rcumvent the di f f i cul t task of measuri ng shaf t
output power. Ef f i ci ency needs to be measured accuratel y because, as shown i n
Tabl e 1, a si ngl e percentage poi nt of i mproved ef f i ci ency i s worth si gni f i cant
dol l ar savi ngseven for motors as smal l as 25 horsepower (hp). A good el ectri c
power meter can provi de an accuracy of 1%, but an i nexpensi ve, portabl e way to
measure shaf t output power of a coupl ed motor does not exi st. A f urther
and ambi ent temperature.
Tab|e 1. what |s ao extra po|ot oI motor eII|c|eocy |mprovemeot worth?
Horsepower
Full-load Notor Efficieuc] (} Auuual 8aviugs
0rigiual Efficieuc] Fiual Efficieuc]
Auuual Euerg]
8aviugs, kwh
Dollar 8aviugs
$/]ear
10 89.5 90.5 O05 80
25 92.4 98.4 1,420 71
50 98.0 94.0 2,808 140
100 94.5 95.5 5,481 272
200 95.0 9O.0 10,748 587
hote. Based ou purchase of a 1,800 rpm totall] euclosed fau-cooled motor with 8,7O0 hours per ]ear of
operatiou, 75 load, aud au electrical rate of $0.05/kwh.
Credi bl e ef f i ci ency rati ngs are normal l y obtai ned i n a l aboratory, f ol l owi ng
caref ul l y control l ed dynamometer testi ng procedures as descri bed i n I EEE
Standard 112(b). Fi el d measurements for determi ni ng motor ef f i ci ency pose
Motor l osses f al l i nto several categori es that can be measured i n vari ous ways.
2
R) l osses
2
R) l osses
cool i ng f an l oad)
The most di rect and credi bl e methods of measuri ng these l osses i nvol ve
readi ngs must be taken wi th the motor runni ng under l oad, then uncoupl ed and
runni ng unl oaded. Wi ndi ng resi stance must be measured. Temperature correcti ons
must be performed.
st|mat|og Notor II|c|eocy |o the F|e|d
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Some of the avai l abl e f i el d motor-ef f i ci ency esti mati on methods i ncl ude:
Loss accounting methods. These measure most of the above l osses usi ng
ei ther speci al dedi cated l ab-i n-a-box devi ces or very accurate conventi onal
i nstruments, f or exampl e, power meters, thermometers, and mi cro-ohmmeters.
These methods have the potenti al of bei ng accurate wi thi n 1% to 3% i f caref ul l y
appl i ed. The necessary i nstruments are costl y and the process i s very ti me and
l abor consumpti ve. Power meters must be accurate at very l ow power f actors that
occur when motors operate unl oaded.
Slip method.
for esti mati ng motor ef f i ci ency. Thi s method computes shaf t output power as the
rated horsepower mul ti pl i ed by the rati o of measured sl i p to the sl i p i mpl i ed by
the namepl ate. Sl i p i s the di f f erence between synchronous and shaf t speed.
Cur r ent signatur e pr edictive maintenance devices. A number of
sophi sti cated devi ces are marketed for anal yzi ng motor condi ti on, parti cul arl y
current harmoni cs, based upon el ectri cal measurements of an operati ng motor.
Whi l e the accuracy of these devi ces has not been veri f i ed, the margi nal cost and
l abor of usi ng these devi ces i s smal l i f they are al ready depl oyed for predi cti ve
mai ntenance uses.
M otorM aster + 4.0. The sof tware i ncorporates several
methods f or determi ni ng motor l oad. These i nvol ve the use of motor namepl ate
data i n conj uncti on wi th sel ected combi nati ons of i nput power, vol tage, current,
and/or operati ng speed. Wi th the percent l oad known, the sof tware determi nes
as-l oaded ef f i ci ency f rom def aul t tabl es based on the motor type, condi ti on, and
horsepower. Motor Master + automati cal l y chooses the best avai l abl e method
based upon the data i t i s gi ven.
xteod the 0perat|og L|Ie oI Yo0r Notor
why do motors Ia||?
Certai n components of motors degrade wi th ti me and operati ng stress. El ectri cal
i nsul ati on weakens over ti me wi th exposure to vol tage unbal ance, over and under-
vol tage, vol tage di sturbances, and temperature. Contact between movi ng surf aces
causes wear. Wear i s af fected by di rt, moi sture, and corrosi ve f umes and i s greatl y
accel erated when l ubri cant i s mi sappl i ed, becomes overheated or contami nated, or
i s not repl aced at regul ar i nterval s. When any components are degraded beyond
the poi nt of economi cal repai r, the motor s economi c l i fe i s ended.
For the smal l est and l east expensi ve motors, the motor i s put out of servi ce when a
component such as a beari ng f ai l s. Dependi ng upon type and repl acement cost,
l arger motorsup to 20 or 50 horsepower (hp)may be ref urbi shed and get new
beari ngs, but are usual l y scrapped af ter a wi ndi ng burnout. Sti l l l arger and more
expensi ve motors may be ref urbi shed and rewound to extend l i f e i ndef i ni tel y. An
economi c anal ysi s shoul d al ways be compl eted pri or to a motor s f ai l ure to ensure
that the appropri ate repai r/repl ace deci si on i s made.
how |oog do motors |ast?
Answers vary, wi th some manuf acturers stati ng 30,000 hours, others 40,000
hours, and sti l l others sayi ng I t depends. The useful answer i s probabl y a l ot
l onger wi th a consci enti ous motor systems mai ntenance pl an than wi thout one.
Motor l i f e can range f rom l ess than two years to several decades under varyi ng
ci rcumstances. I n the best ci rcumstances, degradati on sti l l proceeds, and a f ai l ure
can occur i f i t i s not detected. Much of thi s progressi ve deteori ati on can be
i nterventi on.
Even wi th excel l ent sel ecti on and care, motors can sti l l suf fer short l i feti mes i n
unavoi dabl y severe envi ronments. I n some i ndustri es motors are exposed to
contami nants that are severel y corrosi ve, abrasi ve, and/or el ectri cal l y conducti ve.
I n such cases, motor l i fe can be extended by purchasi ng speci al motors, such as
those conf ormi ng to the I nsti t ute of El ectri cal and El ectroni c Engi neers (I EEE)
841 speci f i cati ons, or other severe-duty or corrosi on-resi stant model s.
shorten motor l i fe. For every 10C ri se i n operati ng temperature, the i nsul ati on l i fe
i s cut i n hal f. Thi s can mi sl ead one to thi nk that purchasi ng new motors wi th hi gher
i nsul ati on temperature rati ngs wi l l si gni f i cantl y i ncrease motor l i f e. Thi s i s not
al ways true, because new motors desi gned wi th hi gher i nsul ati on thermal rati ngs
may actual l y operate at hi gher i nternal temperatures (as permi tted by the hi gher
thermal rati ng). I ncreasi ng the thermal rati ng duri ng rewi ndi ng for exampl e, f rom
Cl ass B (130C) to Cl ass H (180C), does i ncrease the wi ndi ng l i f e.
The best saf eguard agai nst thermal damage i s avoi di ng condi ti ons that contri bute
to overheati ng. These i ncl ude di rt, under and over-vol tage, vol tage unbal ance,
harmoni cs, hi gh ambi ent temperat ure, poor venti l ati on, and overl oad operati on
(even wi thi n the servi ce f actor).
S0ggested Act|oos
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Beari ng f ai l ures account for near l y one-hal f of al l motor fai l ur es. I f not detected
i n ti me, the f ai l i ng beari ng can cause overheati ng and damage i nsul ati on, or can
f ai l drasti cal l y and do i rreparabl e mechani cal damage to the motor. Vi brati on
trendi ng i s a good way to detect beari ng probl ems i n ti me to i ntervene.
Wi th beari ngs of ten i mpl i cated i n motor f ai l ures, the L10h rati ng of a beari ng may
be cause for concern. The L10 rati ng i s the number of shaf t revol uti ons unti l 10%
of a l arge batch of beari ngs f ai l s under a very speci f i c test regi men. It does not
fol l ow that si mpl y havi ng a l arge L10 rati ng wi l l si gni f i cantl y extend motor
beari ng l i fe. Wrong repl acement beari ngs, i ncorrect l ubri cant, excessi ve l ubri cant,
i ncorrect l ubri cati on i nterval , contami nated l ubri cant, excessi ve vi brati on,
al l destroy a beari ng. Al ways f ol l ow the manuf act urer s l ubri cati on i nstructi ons
and i nterval s.
Make sure motors are not exposed to l oadi ng or operati ng condi ti ons i n excess of
l i mi tati ons def i ned i n manuf acturer speci f i cati ons and Nati onal El ectri cal
Manuf acturers Associ ati on (NEMA) standard MG1. Thi s NEMA standard def i nes
l i mi ts for ambi ent temperature, vol tage vari ati on, vol tage unbal ance, and
The |mportaoce oI Notor ShaIt A||gomeot
The obj ecti ve of opti mi zed shaf t al i gnment i s to i ncrease the operati ng l i fe span of
rotati ng machi nery. To achi eve thi s goal , components that are the most l i kel y to
f ai l must be made to operate wi thi n thei r acceptabl e desi gn l i mi ts.
Whi l e mi sal i gnment has no measurabl e ef f ect on motor ef f i ci ency, correct shaf t
al i gnment ensures the smooth, ef f i ci ent transmi ssi on of power f rom the motor to

ment produces excessi ve vi brati on, noi se, coupl i ng and beari ng temperature
i ncreases, and premature beari ng or coupl i ng f ai l ure.
Types oI N|sa||gomeot
There are three types of motor
mi sal i gnment:
Angul ar mi sal i gnment occurs
when the motor i s set at an angl e
angl e or mi smatch can be to the l ef t or the ri ght, or above or bel ow. I f the
woul d cross each other, rather than superi mpose or run al ong a common
centerl i ne. Angul ar mi sal i gnment can cause severe damage to the dri ven
Par al l el mi sal i gnment occurs when the two shaf t centerl i nes are paral l el , but not
i n the same l i ne. They are of f set hori zontal l y or verti cal l y (or both), di spl aced to
the l ef t or ri ght, or posi ti oned at di f f erent el evati ons.
Combi nati on mi sal i gnment occurs when the motor shaf t suf fers f rom angul ar
mi sal i gnment i n addi ti on to paral l el mi sal i gnment.
0o0p||ogs
Larger motors are usual l y di rectl y coupl ed to thei r l oads wi th ri gi d or f l exi bl e
mi sal i gnment whi l e f l exi bl e coupl i ngs tol erate smal l amounts of mi sal i gnment.
Fl exi bl e coupl i ngs can al so reduce vi brati on transmi tted f rom one pi ece of
def i ned i n the i nstructi on sheet f or the coupl i ng.
It i s a mi stake, however, to take advantage of coupl i ng f l exi bi l i ty f or excessi ve
mi sal i gnment, as f l exi ng of the coupl i ng and of the shaf t wi l l i mpose f orces on the
beari ng, seal , or coupl i ng f ai l ures, shaf t breaki ng or cracki ng, and excessi ve radi al
and axi al vi brati ons. Secondary ef f ects i ncl ude l ooseni ng of foundati on bol ts, and
l oose or broken coupl i ng bol ts. Operati ng l i fe i s shortened whenever shaf ts are
mi sal i gned.
ldeal Aligumeut
Augular Nisaligumeut Parallel Nisaligumeut
S0ggested Act|oos
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A||gomeot To|eraoces
Proper shaf t al i gnment i s especi al l y cri ti cal when the motor i s operated at hi gh
speeds. Typi cal al i gnment tol erances are summari zed i n Tabl e 1.
Tab|e 1. A||gomeot To|eraoces
Notor 8peed,
RPN
Parallel 0ffset (mils} Augular Nisaligumeut (mils}
Excelleut Acceptaole Excelleut Acceptaole
1200 +/- 1.25 +/- 2.0 0.5 0.8
1800 +/- 1.0 +/- 1.5 0.8 0.5
8O00 +/- 0.5 +/- 0.75 0.2 0.8
I n practi ce, proper al i gnment i s di f f i cul t to achi eve wi thout usi ng al i gnment
mi sal i gnment. The proper shaf t al i gnment procedure i s to secure the dri ven
for i nstance, woul d i mpose stress upon the connecti ng pi pi ng. Then the motor
shoul d be moved i nto proper al i gnment and j oi ned to the coupl i ng.
shut i t down and i mmedi atel y recheck al i gnment. Due to thermal growth,
machi nes that are al i gned i n the col d pre-operati ng condi ti on are al most al ways
manuf acturers publ i sh thermal of f set val ues so the al i gnment prof essi onal can
correct f or thermal growth duri ng the i ni ti al al i gnment process.
8ep|ace V-8e|ts w|th 0ogged or Syochrooo0s 8e|t 0r|ves
About one-thi rd of the el ectri c motors i n the i ndustri al and commerci al sectors use
bel t dri ves. Bel t dri ves provi de f l exi bi l i ty i n the posi ti oni ng of the motor rel ati ve
to the l oad. Pul l eys (sheaves) of varyi ng di ameters al l ow the speed of the dri ven
ef f i ci ent than others, of f eri ng potenti al energy cost savi ngs.
The maj ori ty of bel t dri ves use . V-bel ts use a trapezoi dal cross secti on to
create a wedgi ng acti on on the pul l eys to i ncrease f ri cti on and i mprove the bel t s
power transf er capabi l i ty. Joi ned or mul ti pl e bel ts are speci f i ed for heavy l oads.
V-bel t dri ves can have a peak ef f i ci ency of 95% to 98% at the ti me of i nstal l ati on.

and V-bel t desi gn and constructi on. Ef f i ci ency deteri orates by as much as 5% (to a
nomi nal ef f i ci ency of 93%) over ti me i f sl i ppage occurs because the bel t i s not
peri odi cal l y re-tensi oned.
have sl ots that run perpendi cul ar to the bel t s l ength. The sl ots
reduce the bendi ng resi stance of the bel t. Cogged bel ts can be used wi th the same
ef f i ci ency that i s about 2% hi gher than that of standard V-bel ts.
Synchronous bel ts of f er an ef f i ci ency of about 98% and mai ntai n that ef f i ci ency
over a wi de l oad range. I n contrast, V-bel ts have a sharp reducti on i n ef f i ci ency at
and retensi oni ng, operate i n wet and oi l y envi ronments, and run sl i p-f ree. But,
synchronous bel ts are noi sy, unsui tabl e for shock l oads, and transfer vi brati ons.
P
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xamp|e
A conti nuousl y operati ng, 100-hp, suppl y-ai r f an motor (93% ef f i ci ent) operates at
an average l oad of 75% whi l e consumi ng 527,000 kWh annual l y. What are the
annual energy and dol l ar savi ngs i f a 93% ef f i ci ent (
1
) V-bel t i s repl aced wi th a
98% ef f i ci ent (
2
Ener gy Savings = Annual Energy Use x (1
1
/
2
)
= 527,000 kWh/year x (1 93/98) = 26,888 kWh/year
Annual Cost Savings = 26,888 kWh x $0.05/kWh = $1,345
F0rther 0oos|derat|oos
For centri f ugal f ans and pumps, whi ch exhi bi t a strong rel ati onshi p between
operati ng speed and power, synchronous bel t sprockets must be sel ected that take
i nto account the absence of sl i ppage. Operati ng costs coul d actual l y i ncrease i f
sl i ppage i s reduced and a centri f ugal l oad i s dri ven at a sl i ghtl y hi gher speed.
Synchronous bel ts are the most ef f i ci ent choi ce. However, cogged bel ts may be a
better choi ce when vi brati on dampi ng i s needed or shock l oads cause abrupt
make a whi rri ng noi se that mi ght be obj ecti onabl e i n some appl i cati ons.
Appand|x 8: T|p Shaat humbar
Avo|d h0|saoce Tr|pp|og w|th Prem|0m II|c|eocy Notors
I n most cases, upgradi ng to NEMA Premi um
ef f i ci ency motors has no noti ceabl e

i mpact on the el ectri cal system. However, i n rare cases nui sance tri ps can occur
The Nati onal El ectri cal Manuf act urers Associ ati on (NEMA) recogni zes and
descri bes two components of starti ng current, i nstantaneous peak i nrush and
l ocked rotor current. Nui sance tri ppi ng has been pri mari l y associ ated wi th the
i nstantaneous peak i nrush, whi ch i s a momentary current t ransi ent that occurs
i mmedi atel y (wi thi n hal f an AC cycl e) af ter contact cl osure. Locked-rotor current
the current remai ns near the l ocked-rotor val ue duri ng accel erati on unti l the motor
approaches i ts operati ng speed. (Note: The terms i nrush or starti ng current are
of ten used to mean l ocked-rotor current.)
NEMA Premi um motors have sl i ghtl y hi gher l ocked-rotor currents and l ocked-
rotor code l etters than l ower-ef f i ci ency motors of the same rati ng. However, most
NEMA Premi um motors are NEMA Desi gn B and are subj ect to the same
maxi mum al l owabl e l ocked-rotor current as thei r standard-ef f i ci ency counterparts.
Locked-rotor current for speci f i c new motor model s can be l ooked up i n the
sof tware or deci phered f rom the l ocked-rotor code l etter on the
motor namepl ate. Thi s l etter, usual l y j ust
desi gnated as Code, i s not the same as the
motor desi gn l etter code. Locked-rotor code
expresses current i n ki l ovol t amperes (kVA)
per horsepower (hp). The code l etters are
def i ned as f ol l ows:
xamp|e
The maxi mum l ocked-rotor current for a
Code C, 460-vol t, 100-hp motor i s determi ned as fol l ows.
LR Current = Motor horsepower x (Maxi mum kVA/hp/Suppl y vol tage
= 502 Amps
The NEMA tabl e actual l y conti nues al l the way to l etter V wi th current i ncreasi ng
about 12.3% f or each l etter i ncrement. Onl y smal l and non-NEMA Desi gn B
motors have Codes beyond L.
The rati o of peak i nrush to l ocked-rotor current tends to i ncrease wi th hi gher-
ef f i ci ency motors due to thei r l ower power f actor under l ocked rotor condi ti ons.
Locked-8otor 0ode, kVAlhp
A 0-8.15 0 5.O-O.8
B 8.15-8.55 H O.8-7.1
0 8.55-4.0 J 7.1-8.0
D 4.0-4.5 K 8.0-9.0
E 4.5-5.0 l 9.0-10.0
F 5.0-5.O N 10.0-11.2
S0ggested Act|oos
|| ru|arce |||pp|r cccu|.
capac||c| a|e |r|a||ed a|ead c| ||e
|a||e|.
\a||cra| E|ec|||c Ccde |c| u|darce
cr |rc|ea|r ||e |r|ar|arecu |||p
|e.e| c| ]cu| c||cu|| p|c|ec|c|. T|e
Ccde |a |eer rcd|||ed |c a||cW
adju|rer| |c a |ea|e| a||cWa||e
|||p e|||r W|er ru|arce |||p cccu|.
\c|e ||a| ||e Ccde car |e (u||e
ccrp||ca|ed ard e/cep||cr dc e/||.
Dcr'| |e||a|e |c ccr|ac| a ||cered
p|c|e|cra| e|ec|||ca| er|ree| |c
|ec|.e rc|c| p|c|ec||cr p|c||er.
u|||c|er|, ||e c||cu|| p|c|ec|c| car |e
|ep|aced W||| a c||cu|| p|c|ec|c| W|||
a rec|ar|ca| de|a] ||a| |e| || ||de
|||cu| |a|| a c]c|e c| cu||er| a|c.e
||e rcr|ra| e|||r.
8eso0rces
Assoc|at|on (hFNA}-|c| add|||cra|
|r|c|ra||cr cr \E|A P|er|ur
|arda|d, ee ||e |c|c| T|p S|ee| =1
.||| WWW.rera.c|.
a||arce |r d|arc|r ru|arce rc|c|
|||p ard |e|a|ed |r|c|ra||cr cr
|rdu|||a| ere|] e|||c|erc] reau|e
ccr|ac| ||e EERE |r|c|ra||cr Cer|e| a|
(8//, 88/-84o8. V||| ||e Be|P|ac||ce
add|||cra| |ecu|ce ard |r|c|ra||cr cr
||a|r|r.
Appand|x 8: T|p Shaat humbar
Whi l e NEMA Desi gn B standards l i mi t l ocked-rotor current, no standard l i mi ts
the peak-i nrush current. Fortunatel y, peak-i nrush current i s usual l y not a probl em
because i t l asts onl y a f ew mi l l i seconds. However, i t can be a probl em when the
motor control l er uses i nstantaneous magneti c-onl y ci rcui t protectors that react i n
l ess than a si ngl e AC cycl e. That i s because peak i nrush can be as hi gh as 2.8 ti mes
the RMS l ocked-rotor current and may exceed the ci rcui t protector current setti ng.
A motor may tri p on peak-i nrush current and start successf ul l y on the next
attempt. The exact peak-i nrush current depends on the moment when contacts
cl ose i n the AC vol tage cycl e, and how cl ose to si mul taneousl y the three-phase
contacts cl ose.
Nui sance tri ps are unl i kel y to occur i n si tuati ons wi thout i nstantaneous magneti c-
onl y ci rcui t protectors when the repl acement motor i s a NEMA Premi um Desi gn
B motor of the same speed and horsepower. Even i f i nstantaneous magneti c-onl y
ci rcui t protectors are present, you may not have a probl em wi th nui sance tri ps.
Many motor manuf acturers of f er NEMA Premi um Desi gn A motors that meet
Some of the most ef f i ci ent motors are Desi gn A, so do not l i mi t choi ces to Desi gn
B unl ess you have l ocked-rotor current concerns.
||m|oate Vo|tage 0oba|aoce
Vol tage unbal ance degrades the perf ormance and shortens the l i fe of a three-phase
motor. Vol tage unbal ance at the motor stator termi nal s causes phase current
unbal ance f ar out of proporti on to the vol tage unbal ance. Unbal anced currents l ead
l osses, and motor overheati ng, whi ch resul ts i n a shorter wi ndi ng i nsul ati on l i fe.
Vol tage unbal ance i s def i ned by the Nati onal El ectri cal Manuf acturers Associ ati on
(NEMA) as 100 ti mes the absol ute val ue of the maxi mum devi ati on of the l i ne
vol tage f rom the average vol tage on a three-phase system, di vi ded by the average
vol tage. For exampl e, i f the measured l i ne vol tages are 462, 463, and 455 vol ts, the
average i s 460 vol ts. The vol tage unbal ance i s:
It i s recommended that the vol tage unbal ances at the motor termi nal s not exceed
MG-1-2003, Revi si on 1-2004, and wi l l voi d most manuf acturers warranti es.
Common causes of vol tage unbal ance i ncl ude:
the bank.
The ef f i ci ency of a rewound, 1800-RPM, 100-hp motor i s gi ven as a f uncti on of
vol tage unbal ance and motor l oad i n the tabl e. The general t rend of ef f i ci ency
reducti on wi th i ncreased vol tage unbal ance i s observed for al l motors at al l l oad
condi ti ons.
Notor II|c|eocy* 0oder 0ood|t|oos oI Vo|tage 0oba|aoce
Notor load
of Full
Notor Efficieuc],
Voltage Uuoalauce
homiual 1 2.5
100 94.4 94.4 98.0
75 95.2 95.1 98.9
50 9O.1 95.5 94.1
* Results var] depeudiug upou motor desigu, speed, full-load efficieuc], aud horsepower ratiug. T]picall],
electric motors have peak efficieuc] uear 75 load, out the aoove motor tested iu the lao showed otherwise.
motor overheati ng and premature motor f ai l ure. I f unbal anced vol tages are
detected, a thorough i nvesti gati on shoul d be undertaken to determi ne the cause.
Energy and dol l ar savi ngs occur when correcti ve acti ons are taken.
S0ggested Act|oos
rc|c| |e|r|ra| |c .e|||] ||a| .c||ae
ur|a|arce | ra|r|a|red |e|cW 1.
||re d|a|ar |c .e|||] ||a| |r|e-
p|ae |cad a|e ur||c|r|] d|||||u|ed.
|e(u||ed ard pe||c|r arrua| ||e|rc-
|ap||c |rpec||cr. Arc||e| |rd|ca|c|
||a| .c||ae ur|a|arce ra] |e a
p|c||er | 120 H/ .|||a||cr. A ||rd|r
c| 120 H/ .|||a||cr |cu|d p|crp| ar
|rred|a|e c|ec| c| .c||ae |a|arce.
8eso0rces
Assoc|at|on (hFNA}-V||| WWW.rera.
c| |c| add|||cra| |r|c|ra||cr cr .c||ae
|r|a|arce.
U.S. 0apartmant of Fnargy-D0E'
HctcrHaster+ ard HctcrHaster+
InternaticnaI c||Wa|e |cc| |e|p ]cu
ra|e rc|c| ccrpa||cr ard e|ec||cr
cr a ||cad |are c| rc|c|.
V||| ||e Be|P|ac||ce we| ||e a| WWW.
|c acce ||ee ard rar] c||e|
|rdu|||a| ere|] e|||c|erc] |ecu|ce
ard ||a|r|r.
(460 - 455) x 100 = 1.1%
460
xamp|e
Assume that the motor tested as shown i n the above tabl e was f ul l y l oaded and
operated f or 8,000 hours per year, wi th an unbal anced vol tage of 2.5%. Wi th
energy pri ced at $0.05/kWh, the annual energy and dol l ar savi ngs, af ter correcti ve
acti ons are taken, are:
Annual Ener gy Savings = 100 hp x 0.746 kW/ hp x 8,000 hrs/yr x
(100/93 100/94.4) = 9,517 kWh
Annual Dollar Savings = 9,517 kWh x $0.05/kWh = $476
Overal l savi ngs may be much l arger because an unbal anced suppl y vol tage may
power numerous motors.
F0rther 0oos|derat|oos
Vol tage unbal ance causes extremel y hi gh current unbal ance. The magni tude of
current unbal ance may be 6 to 10 ti mes as l arge as the vol tage unbal ance. For the
100-hp motor i n thi s exampl e, l i ne currents (at f ul l -l oad wi th 2.5% vol tage
unbal ance) were unbal anced by 27.7%.
A motor wi l l run hotter when operati ng on a power suppl y wi th vol tage unbal ance.
addi ti onal temperature ri se = 2 x (% vol tage unbal ance )
2
. For exampl e, a motor
wi th a 100C temperature ri se woul d experi ence a temperature i ncrease of 8C
when operated under condi ti ons of 2% vol tage unbal ance. Wi ndi ng i nsul ati on l i f e
i s reduced by one-hal f for each 10C i ncrease i n operati ng temperature.
8eIereoces
I nformati on i n thi s ti p sheet i s extracted f rom NEMA Standar ds Publ i cati on MG-
.
Appand|x 8: T|p Shaats humbar 8
||m|oate xcess|ve |o-P|aot 0|str|b0t|oo System Vo|tage 0rops
Studi es i ndi cate that i n-pl ant el ectri cal di stri buti on system l ossesdue to vol tage
unbal ance, over- and under-vol tage, l ow power f actor, undersi zed conductors,
l eakage to ground, and poor connecti onscan account for l ess than 1% to over
4% of total pl ant el ectri cal energy consumpti on. I n a study at three i ndustri al
f aci l i ti es, average el ectri cal di stri buti on system l osses accounted f or 2% of pl ant
annual energy use. Losses due to poor connecti ons represented one-thi rd of these
l osses and accounted for 40% of the savi ngs af ter correcti ve acti ons were taken.
The i ncreased resi stance converts el ectri cal energy i nto heat and i mposes
addi ti onal l oads on the di stri buti on system. Mai ntenance of connecti ons i s
general l y referred to as termi nati on mai ntenance. Termi nati on mai ntenance i s
general l y a cost-ef f ecti ve el ectri cal di stri buti on system energy savi ngs measure.
Causes of poor connecti ons i ncl ude:
Di st ri buti on system l osses due to poor el ectri cal contacts appear as hot spots
caused by i ncreased resi stance or el ectri c power (I
2
R) l osses. These hot spots may be
detected by i nf rared thermography or a vol tage drop survey. I nexpensi ve hand-
Termi nati ons shoul d be regul arl y i nspected. Repl aci ng f use cl i ps or cl eani ng
breaker f i ngers can be very cost-ef f ecti ve. The cost of cl eani ng or repl acement i s
l ow compared to the si gni f i cant energy savi ngs and secondary benef i ts, i ncl udi ng
to reduced f i re hazards.
0ood0ct|og a Vo|tage-0rop S0rvey
as a hand-hel d vol tmeter. Vol tage drop measurements shoul d be taken f rom the
i nput of each panel to the panel output for each l oad. For a typi cal motor ci rcui t,
measure the vol tage drop f rom the bus bar to the l oad si de of the motor starter.
Compare the magni tude of the vol tage drop for each phase wi th the vol tage drop
for the other phases suppl yi ng the l oad. A vol tage drop di f f erence of over 15%
i ndi cates that testi ng shoul d be i ni ti ated to i denti f y poor ci rcui t connecti ons. Even
wi th good bal ance, an excessi ve vol tage drop i ndi cates that component vol tage
drop testi ng shoul d be i ni ti ated.
S0ggested Act|oos
.c||ae d|cp | |rp|] ||e .c||ae
d|||e|erce ac|c ||e ccrrec||cr.
Vc||ae d|cp |r|c|ra||cr car |e ued
|c de|e|r|re ere|] |ce ard
e/ce ere|] ccrurp||cr due |c
|cce ard d|||] ccrrec||cr. Vc||ae-
d|cp reau|erer| |cu|d |e |a|er
a| eac| p|ae. T|e |c|a| ere|] |c
|r a |||ee-p|ae ccrpcrer| |
de|e|r|red |] urr|r ||e |ce |c|
eac| p|ae. ||r|| ||e |cad cr eac|
c||cu|| c| |r|a|| |a|e|-||ar-ccde-
r|r|rur ccrduc|c| || ||e .c||ae
d|cp e/ceed 8.
8eso0rces
U.S. 0apartmant of Fnargy-Ccr|ac|
||e EERE |r|c|ra||cr Cer|e| a| 8//-
88/-84o8 |c c||a|r c||ed pu|||ca||cr c|
|c |e(ue| add|||cra| |r|c|ra||cr cr
rc|c| ard d||.er-e(u|prer| ere|]
e|||c|erc] cppc||ur|||e. Add|||cra|
|ecu|ce ard |r|c|ra||cr cr ||a|r|r |
a|c a.a||a||e a| ||e Be|P|ac||ce we|
|e|p|ac||ce.
oergy Sav|ogs xamp|e
Measurements at a motor control center (MCC) breaker i ndi cate vol tage drops of
8.1, 5.9, and 10.6 vol ts on L
1
, L
2
, and L
3
conti nuousl y operated. Measured l i ne currents are 199.7, 205.7, and 201.8 amps for
L
1
, L
2
, and L
3
. Vol tage drop measurements for ci rcui ts servi ng si mi l ar l oads
i ndi cate that a vol tage drop of 2.5 vol ts shoul d be obtai nabl e. The potenti al annual
energy and el ectri cal demand savi ngs due to correcti ng the probl em are:
Tab|e 1. xcess oergy 0oos0mpt|oo at a N00 8reaker
0ircuit
Neasured Voltage
Drop, Volts
Excess Voltage
Drop, Volts
0urreut, Amps
Excess
Power, kw
Excess Euerg]
Use, kwh
l
1
8.1 5.O 199.7 1.12 9,79O
l
2
5.9 8.4 205.7 0.7 O,12O
l
8
10.O 8.1 201.8 1.O8 14,818
Tota|s: 3.45 30,240
Assumi ng a uti l i ty energy charge of $0.05/ kWh wi th a demand charge of $8.00/
kW per month, potenti al savi ngs are val ued at:
8aviugs = 8.45 kw x $8.00/kw/mouth x 12 mouths/]ear + 80,240 kwh/]ear x $0.05/kwh
= $881 + $1,512 = $1,848 per ]ear (for a siugle oreaker}
8eIereoces
Thi s ti p sheet i s extracted f rom two publ i cati ons prepared for the Bonnevi l l e
Power Admi ni strati on: I ndustr i al El ectr i cal Di str i buti on Systems Study Repor t
and Keepi ng the Spar k i n Your El ectr i cal System: An I ndustr i al El ectr i cal
Di str i buti on Mai ntenance Gui debook.
|mprove Notor 0perat|oo at 0II-0es|go Vo|tages
Motors are desi gned to operate wi thi n +/- 10% of thei r namepl ate rated vol tages.
When motors operate at condi ti ons of over- or under-vol tage, motor ef f i ci ency and
other performance parameters are degraded.
There are certai n standard uti l i zati on vol tages for motors. These correspond to
(but are about 4% l ower than) standard servi ce vol tages. The 4% di f f erence was
establ i shed to al l ow for a reasonabl e l i ne vol tage drop between the transformer
secondary and the poi nt of use (see Tabl e 1).
Tab|e 1. Staodard Notor 0perat|og Vo|tages (Vo|ts)
Serv|ce Vo|tage 208 240 480 O00 2400 41O0
0t|||zat|oo Vo|tage 200 280 4O0 575 2800 4000
Motors someti mes come i n mul ti vol tage rati ngs. The di f ferent vol tages are
accommodated by maki ng di f ferent connecti ons i n the motor termi nal box. For 1:2
rati os l i ke 230/460, the connecti ons change coi l groups f rom paral l el to seri es. For
1:1.73 l i ke 2300/4000, the connecti ons change coi l groups f rom del ta (for the l ower
vol tage) to wye (f or the hi gher vol tage). There i s no di f f erence i n perf ormance at
the di f f erent vol tage rati ngs because the di f f erent connecti on compensates to put
exactl y the same total current through each wi ndi ng turn. Tri -vol tage motors (208-
and operate hotter at 208 vol ts than at 230 or 460 vol ts.
what happeos to Notor PerIormaoce wheo Vo|tage Var|es?
range f rom i ni ti al start to stabi l i zati on at runni ng speed. Thi s reduces a motor s
abi l i ty to break l oose a stuck l oad and i ncreases accel erati on ti mes. Runni ng speed
stabi l i zes at onl y a f racti on of a percent l ower than normal but the breakdown
exacerbated duri ng starti ng and accel erati on when the current i s f our to ei ght
ti mes namepl ate f ul l -l oad l evel s.
Power f actor i mproves wi th under-vol tage. Thi s mi ght be seen as a benef i t except
the reducti on i n reacti ve current i s more than nul l i f i ed by the i ncrease i n the total
current necessary to del i ver the real power at reduced vol tage. Hi gher currents
l ead to i ncreased resi stance and power l osses (I
2
R), reduced motor ef f i ci ency, and
possi bl e overheati ng.
di f f erence between a motor s actual speed and synchronous speed. Synchronous
speed i s al ways 7200 RPM di vi ded by the pol e count, e.g. 3600 (2-pol es), 1800
(4-pol es), 1200 (6-pol es), 900 RPM (8-pol es), etc. The actual synchronous speed i s
al ways the l owest possi bl e synchronous speed above the namepl ate f ul l -l oad
speed. For exampl e, the synchronous speed f or a 1750 RPM motor i s 1800 and the
sl i p i s 50 RPM. Runni ng thi s motor at 10% over-vol tage woul d i ncrease the power
draw for centri f ugal f ans and ci rcul ati ng pumps by around 1.5% because thei r
S0ggested Act|oos
T|e |e| rc|c| pe||c|rarce cccu|
W|er pcWe| upp||ed |c ||e rc|c|
|e|r|ra| | c|ce |c ||e rcr|ra|
u||||/a||cr .c||ae. Tc eru|e e|||c|er|
rc|c| pe||c|rarce, ue ||e |c||cW|r
||p |c cc||ec| |c| c.e|- c| urde|-.c||ae
ard .c||ae ur|a|arce.
ccr|ar||] |cc ||| c| |cc |cW, c|are
|c a d|||e|er| ra|r e|.|ce ||ar-
|c|re| |ap e|||r. Adju| ||arc| c|
eccrda|] ||ar|c|re| |ap e|||r a
recea|].
e|.|ce er||arce, ar 'au|c-|ap-
c|are|' ||ar|c|re| | |eccrrerd-
ed. T|| car |e p|c.|ded |] ||e cu-
|cre| c| ||e u|||||].
er||arce, |u| .a||e W||||r ||e
|ac||||] due |c |cad .a||a||cr ard d|-
|arce ||cr ||e ||ar|c|re|, ccrduc|c|
e/ce|.e. Rep|ace e/|||r ccrduc-
|c| W||| |a|e| cre c| add pa|a||e|
ccrduc|c|. Rep|ace c|d, |re|||c|er|, c|
urde||/ed ||ar|c|re| || ||e] a|e ||e
caue.
ccr.er||cra| rc|c| |a||e|, |cW pcWe|
|ac|c| | uua||] cc||ec|ed |] |r|a|||r
capac||c| a||ac|ed |c ||e |cad-|de
|e|r|ra| c| ||e rc|c| |a||e|.
Cc||ec||r pcWe| |ac|c| a| ||e pc|r|
c| ue W||| |educe ]|er cu||er| ard
acc|a|ed .c||ae d|cp.
adju|a||e peed d||.e (ASD,, ||e
d||.e car ccrpera|e |c| .c||ae
d|c|eparc|e a |cr a ||e |rpu|
.c||ae | W||||r ||e cpe|a||r |are
c| ||e d||.e. T|e d||.e' capac||c|
cc||ec| |c| |cW pcWe| |ac|c|.
rc|c| |c| ||e ac|ua| u||||/a||cr
.c||ae. A| ||e are ||re, ||e] car
e.a|ua|e ||e de|r |c| c||e| pc|||e
Wa] |c |rp|c.e |e||a|||||] ard
e|||c|erc].
Ful l l oad ef f i ci ency i s at maxi mum bet ween nomi nal vol tage and about 10% over-
vol tage. However, at reduced l oad the best ef f i ci ency poi nt shi f ts consi derabl y
toward l ower vol tages.
Someti mes l ow vol tage onl y occurs at remote areas of a f aci l i ty where hi gh l oads
are concentrated. I n new constructi on, or where correcti on of severe vol tage drop
i s necessary, i t may be practi cal to run medi um vol tage (>600 to 6600 vol ts)
di st ri buti on l i nes to the remote areas. At medi um vol tage, even wi th dramati cal l y
reduced conductor cross secti on, the vol tage drop and power l osses are usual l y
hel d to wel l under 1%. The medi um vol tage can be transf ormed down near the
medi um vol tage motors are avai l abl e as smal l as 100 hp.
8eso0rces
U.S. Depar tment of Ener gy For addi ti onal i nf ormati on on ways to i mprove
motor ef f i ci ency by i mprovi ng the vol tage suppl i ed to the motor termi nal s, refer to
the DOE Motor Ti p Sheet # 7: . Fi nd thi s ti p sheet
and addi ti onal i nformati on or resources on motor and motor-dri ven system
ef f i ci ency i mprovement measures on the BestPracti ces Web si te at www.eere.
energy.gov/i ndustry/best practi ces, or contact the EERE I nf ormati on Center at
(877) 337-3463.
Motors use no energy when turned of f . Reduci ng motor operati ng ti me by j ust
10% usual l y saves more energy than repl aci ng a standard ef f i ci ency motor wi th a
NEMA Premi um

ef f i ci ency motor. I n f act, gi ven that 97% of the l i f e cycl e cost of
purchasi ng and operati ng a motor i s energy-rel ated, turni ng a motor of f 10% of the
ti me coul d reduce energy costs enough to purchase three new motors.
However, the bel i ef that stoppi ng and starti ng motors i s harmf ul persi sts. Many
users bel i eve that repeated motor starts wi l l use more energy than constant
operati on, i ncrease uti l i ty demand charges, and shorten motor l i f e. Whi l e these
opi ni ons are not total l y wi thout basi s, they do need to be put i nto proper
perspecti ve.
When started, a motor accel erates and draws more power than when i t i s
operati ng steadi l y at f ul l l oad. Whi l e a typi cal NEMA Desi gn B motor may draw
f rom four to ei ght ti mes the f ul l -l oad cur r ent duri ng starti ng, the power f actor i s
l ow so the i nput power i s not f our to ei ght ti mes rated l oad power. Starti ng
usual l y takes under 2 seconds and i s rarel y over 10 seconds, even f or l arge hi gh
i nerti a l oads. Just 1 mi nute of addi ti onal runni ng ti me consumes f ar more energy
than a motor starti ng event.
Another motor starti ng concern i nvol ves i ncreased uti l i ty demand charges. Agai n,
the excess star ti ng demand i s smal l due to the short durati on of the motor starti ng
i nterval . Peak demand charges are general l y based upon a f aci l i ty s average energy
use over a f i xed or rol l i ng average wi ndow of 15 to 60 mi nutes i n durati on. Check
wi th your uti l i ty to determi ne how they assess peak demand charges.
Start|og Stresses
Starti ng stresses a motor by:
metal f ati gue. However, most shaf t f ai l ures are attri buted to beari ng f ai l ures,
shock, excessi ve bel t tensi on, mi sappl i cati on, or creep duri ng storage (l arge
starts and durati on of rest ti me between starts exceeds the NEMA desi gn range.
Heat f rom exceedi ng these l i mi ts can degrade wi ndi ng i nsul ati on and cause
thermal stressi ng of the rotor cage, l eadi ng to cracks and f ai l ed end-ri ng
connecti ons.
8epeated Notor Starts aod Stops
Whi l e i t i s true that starti ng stresses a motor, motors are desi gned to be started.
For exampl e, motors i n appl i cati ons l i ke l i f t pumps or i rri gati on wel l s start and
of starts i s not excessi ve, l i f eti me i s not si gni f i cantl y af fected.
T0ro Notors 0II wheo hot |o 0se
S0ggested Act|oos
rc|c| ]|er raraerer| p|ar.
Ccr|de| ||re W|er rc|c| car |e
|u| dcWr, |rc|ud|r |||| c|are,
|urc| ||ea|, c| du||r p|cce
|r|e||up||cr.
e/|| W|er rc|c| d||.e |cad |r
pa|a||e|, uc| a ccrp|ec| c|
purp. E.a|ua|e e(uerc|r c| ||ee
rc|c|.
rc|c| W||| |e |u|red c|| W|er ||e]
Wcu|d c||e|W|e |e |urr|r |d|e c|
ur|caded |c| |r|e|.a| |cre| ||ar ||e
|e| |r|e|.a| |der||||ed |r \E|A |0
10-2001.

ere||/ed |u| rc| |r ue |c| |r|||car|
pe||cd c| ||re.
(ASD,, c|| |a||e|, W]e-de||a
|a|||r c| au|c||ar|c|re| |c |educe
|a|||r ||ee cr e(u|prer| ||a|
|e(u||e ||e(uer| |a|||r ard
|cpp|r.
8eso0rces
Assoc|at|on (hFNA}-V||| WWW.
rera.c| |c| rc|e |r|c|ra||cr. w|er
ra||r ||e dec||cr |c |cp a rc|c|,
|e|e| |c \E|A |0 10-2001 'Ere|]
|araerer| 0u|de |c| Se|ec||cr ard
Ue c| ||/ed ||e(uerc] |ed|ur AC
S(u|||e|-Cae Pc|]p|ae |rduc||cr
|c|c|.' |c| |a|e |rduc||cr rc|c|,
|e|e| |c \E|A |0 1-200o '|c|c| ard
0ere|a|c|' Pa|| 20.12.
U.S. 0apartmant of Fnargy |c|
add|||cra| |r|c|ra||cr c| |ecu|ce cr
rc|c| ard rc|c|-d||.er ]|er
e|||c|erc] |rp|c.erer| reau|e, .|||
||e Be|P|ac||ce we| ||e a| WWW.
c| ccr|ac| ||e EERE |r|c|ra||cr Cer|e|
a| (8//, 88/-84o8.
NEMA provi des standards for starti ng duty whi ch consi der i nerti a of the l oad an
i mportant f actor i n starti ng stress. NEMA al so provi des gui dance rel ati ng to start-
run-stop-rest cycl es that are of ten empl oyed i n energy management programs.
to mechani cal f l exi ng of the coi l s and rotor overheati ng duri ng accel erati on, but
there i s no known rel ati onshi p between number of motor starts and nor mal motor
l i f e expectancy. Each start i s one f actor i n the l i fe expectancy and rel i abi l i ty of the
motor and some reducti on i n l i fe expectancy and rel i abi l i ty must be accepted
when a motor i s conti nuousl y appl i ed at the upper range of i ts starti ng duty.
other f actors al so contri bute to temperature ri se. When operati ng i n the upper
range of starti ng duty, take these steps to ensure that you are wel l wi thi n
tol erances on other sources of thermal stress:
harmoni c vol tages
al ti t ude or above 40C.
You may f i nd that you can substanti al l y i ncrease the ti me your motors are shut
down wi thout approachi ng the NEMA MG 10-2001 starti ng duty l i mi ts.
Add|t|ooa| |oIormat|oo
i nducti on motors of vari ous rati ngs. Motors dri vi ng l oads that do not exceed
these i nerti a l i mi ts can be started twi ce i n i mmedi ate successi on when the motor
i s i ni ti al l y at ambi ent temperature.
per hour f or motors of vari ous horsepower and synchronous speed rati ngs. The
r est per i od between
starts and provi des a mi ni mum l ength for that rest peri od.
Adj0stab|e Speed 0r|ve Part-Load II|c|eocy
An adj ustabl e speed dri ve (ASD) i s a devi ce that control s the rotati onal speed of
appl i cati ons i n the 1 to 1,000 hp motor si ze range. For centri f ugal f ans or pumps
wi th no stati c l i f t, the f l ui d or ai r f l ow provi ded vari es di rectl y wi th the pump or
f l ui d f l ow yi el d si gni f i cant reducti ons i n energy use. For exampl e, reduci ng speed
hp
2
= hp
1
x (RPM
2
/RPM
1
)
3
= hp
1
x (Flow
2
/Flow
1
)
3
Where:
hp
1
hp
2
RPM
1
RPM
2
Fl ow
1
= ori gi nal f l ow provi ded by centri f ugal f an or pump
Fl ow
2
= f i nal f l ow provi ded by centri f ugal f an or pump
F|g0re 1. Power reg0|remeot Ior ceotr|I0ga| |oads
0eterm|o|og oergy Sav|ogs
To establ i sh the energy savi ngs that are possi bl e when an ASD i s appl i ed to a
ti me that the f an or pump operates at each system operati ng poi nt. You must al so
know the ef f i ci ency of the vari abl e speed dri ve and the dri ve motor when the
motor i s operati ng parti al l y l oaded and at a reduced speed to sati sf y vari abl e f l ow
suppl i ed by the motor. A motor l oad f actor i s the l oad i mposed upon the motor
ASD i s the actual power suppl i ed by the devi ce (shaf t horsepower di vi ded by the
motor ef f i ci ency at i ts l oad poi nt) di vi ded by the rated output power. Manuf ac-
turers can provi de ef f i ci ency val ues for ASDs as a f uncti on of operati ng speed or
S0ggested Act|oos
e|||c|erc] a a |urc||cr c| rc|c|
cpe|a||r peed c| d||.e pcWe|
cu|pu|.
de|e|r|re ||e ere|] a.|r due |c
||e ue c| ASD .e|u |||c|||e c|
darpe| ||cW ccr||c|. w|er ASD pa||-
|cad pe||c|rarce .a|ue a|e rc|
|ead||] a.a||a||e, ue ||e .a|ue |.er
|r Ta||e 1.
8eso0rces
rc|c|-d||.er ]|er e|||c|erc], ard |c
dcWr|cad ||e |c|c||a|e|+ c||Wa|e
|cc|, .||| ||e Be|P|ac||ce we| ||e a|
|e|p|ac||ce, c| ccr|ac| ||e EERE
|r|c|ra||cr Cer|e| a| (8//, 88/-84o8.
Assoc|at|on (hFNA} -V||| ||e \E|A
we| ||e a| WWW.rera.c| |c| |r|c|ra-
||cr cr rc|c| |arda|d, app||ca||cr
u|de, ard |ec|r|ca| pape|.
When consi deri ng el ect roni c PWM ASDs, you may use Tabl e 1 to obtai n
ef f i ci ency val ues for dri ves of vari ous rati ngs that suppl y power to motors
Tab|e 1. PwN AS0 II|c|eocy as a F0oct|oo oI 0r|ve Power 8at|og
1
Var|ab|e
Speed 0r|ve
hp 8at|og
II|c|eocy,%
Icac, Iercent cf 0rive Batec Icwer 00tp0t
1.6 12.5 25 42 50 75 100
8 81 77 8O 90 91 98 94
5 85 80 88 91 92 94 95
10 41 88 90 98 94 95 9O
20 47 8O 98 94 95 9O 97
80 50 88 98 95 95 9O 97
50 4O 8O 92 95 95 9O 97
O0 51 87 92 95 95 9O 97
75 47 8O 98 95 9O 97 97
100 55 89 94 95 9O 97 97
200 O1 91 95 9O 9O 97 97
400 O1 91 95 9O 9O 97 97
1. These efficieuc] values ma] oe cousidered represeutative of "t]pical" PwN A8D performauce. There is
uo widel] accepted test protocol that allows for efficieuc] comparisous oetweeu differeut drive models or
orauds. lu additiou, there are mau] wa]s to set up au A8D that cau affect the operatiug efficieuc].
3c0rce: 3afrcnics, Inc.
ASD ef f i ci ency decreases wi th decreasi ng motor l oad. The decl i ne i n ef f i ci ency
i s more pronounced wi th dri ves of smal l er horsepower rati ngs. As shown i n
the f ol l owi ng exampl e, thi s reducti on i n ef f i ci ency i s not as detri mental as i t
f i rst seems.
xamp|e
Consi der an adj ustabl e speed dri ve coupl ed to a motor that del i vers 20 hp to an
exhaust f an when operated at i ts f ul l rated speed. At 1/4 of i ts rated operati ng
power. Even wi th the l ow dri ve ef f i ci ency of 47%, wi th adj ustabl e speed operati on
hp
25%
= (20 hp x (1/4)
3
/ (47/100)) = 0.66 hp.
hote. This example does uot accouut for the efficieuc] at each load poiut for the fau drive motor.
Remember that the system ef f i ci ency i s the product of the ASD ef f i ci ency, the
syst em
=
E
ASD
x E
mot or
x E ). Ef f i ci enci es f or i ntegral horsepower NEMA Desi gn A
and B motors at f ul l and part-l oad can readi l y be obtai ned f rom the U.S.
Department of Energy s MotorMaster+ 4.0 sof tware tool . Ef f i ci enci es for dri ven
curves.
|s |t 0ost-IIect|ve to 8ep|ace 0|d ddy-00rreot 0r|ves?
0verv|ew
New pul se-wi dth-modul ated (PWM) adj ustabl e speed dri ves (ASDs) may be cost-
ef f ecti ve repl acements for agi ng or mai ntenance-i ntensi ve eddy-current dri ves.
The eddy-current dri ve or cl utch i s a sl i p devi ce consi sti ng of two rotati ng
el ements that are coupl ed by a magneti c f i el d wi th the sl i p and rotor speed based
upon the magneti c f i el d st rength. An al ternati ng current motor dri ves a constant-
speed rotati ng drum that surrounds a cyl i nder (rotor), whi ch i s coupl ed to an
an adj ustabl e magneti c f i el d. The maxi mum ef f i ci ency of a sl i p-based adj ustabl e
between f ul l -l oad speed and the operati ng speed. Tabl e 1 i ndi cates the ef f i ci ency
of a magneti cal l y coupl ed eddy-current dri ve when matched to a centri f ugal l oad.
Tab|e 1. II|c|eocy Vers0s Speed Ior ao ddy-00rreot 0o0p|ed 0eotr|I0ga| Load
1
0r|ve Speed, % oI
F0||-Load Speed Load %
ddy-00rreot 0r|ve
II|c|eocy, %
100 100 94.8 to 99.8
90 72.9 85.9 to 90.4
80 51.2 7O.1 to 80.1
70 84.8 OO.9 to 70.5
O0 21.O 5O.9 to 59.8
50 12.5 47.7 to 50.2
40 O.4 89.7 to 41.7
80 2.7 28.O to 29.9
1. 8ource. 0o]ote Electrouics, luc. "Pa]oack
" Naguetic-0oupled Variaole 8peed Drive literature.

oergy Sav|ogs xamp|e
An eddy-current dri ve on a 50 hp boi l er forced-draf t f an has reached the end of i ts
usef ul operati ng l i f e; the proposed repl acement i s a PWM ASD. The f an operates
for 8,000 hours per year whi l e del i veri ng 90% of rated f l ow f or 20% of the ti me,
80% f l ow f or 50% of the ti me, and 70% of rated f l ow for the remai ni ng operati ng
hours. Energy savi ngs are obtai ned due to the i mproved ef f i ci ency of the PWM
dri ve over the eddy-current dri ve. I n Tabl e 2, the exi sti ng system or basel i ne
annual energy consumpti on i s determi ned as f ol l ows:
Tab|e 2. Average Power 8eg0|remeots Ior a 0eotr|I0ga| Fao w|th ddy-00rreot 0r|ve
Speed 0ootro|
% oI 8ated
Fao Speedl
F|ow
Load 00ty
0yc|e, %
Load,
ShaIt hp
Notor
II|c|eocy,%
ddy-
00rreot 0r|ve
II|c|eocy, %
we|ghted
|op0t Power
(kw)
90 20 8O.45 91.O 90.0 O.59
80 50 25.O 90.9 80.0 18.18
70 80 17.2 8O.O 70.0 O.88
Tota|. 26.05
S0ggested Act|oos
d||.e e|||c|erc] |r|c|ra||cr a a
|urc||cr c| rc|c| cpe|a||r peed c|
d||.e pcWe| cu|pu|. Ue |||
|r|c|ra||cr |c de|e|r|re ||e ere|]
a.|r due |c ||e ue c| a Pw| ASD
.e|u ar edd]-cu||er| d||.e.
.a|ue a|e rc| |ead||] a.a||a||e, ue
||e .a|ue |.er |r ||e |c|c| T|p
S|ee| =11. Acj0stabIe 3peec 0rive
Iart-Icac Ffficiency.
\E|A De|r A ard B rc|c| a| |u||
ard pa||-|cad car |ead||] |e c||a|red
||cr ||e U.S. Depa||rer| c| Ere|]'
|c|c|-|a|e|+ 4.0 c||Wa|e |cc|.
8eso0rces
rc|c|-d||.er ]|er e|||c|erc], ard |c
dcWr|cad ||e |c|c||a|e|+ c||Wa|e
|cc|, .||| ||e Be|P|ac||ce we| ||e a|
|e|p|ac||ce, c| ccr|ac| ||e EERE
|r|c|ra||cr Cer|e| a| (8//, 88/-84o8.
Assoc|at|on (hFNA}-V||| ||e \E|A
the product of the motor and dri ve ef f i ci ency val ues. The wei ghted i nput power
val ue i s the i nput power ti mes the l oad duty cycl e percentage di vi ded by 100. I n
Tab|e 3. Average Power 8eg0|remeots Ior a 0eotr|I0ga| Fao w|th AS0 Speed 0ootro|
% oI 8ated
Fao Speedl
F|ow
Load 00ty
0yc|e, %
Load
ShaIt hp
Notor
II|c|eocy,%
AS0
II|c|eocy, %
we|ghted
|op0t Power
(kw)
90 20 8O.45 91.O 9O O.18
80 50 25.O 90.9 95 11.05
70 80 17.2 8O.O 98 4.7O
Tota|: 21.99
As the eddy-current dri ve ef f i ci ency drops rapi dl y at l oads bel ow 70%, energy
savi ngs are very sensi ti ve to the l oad prof i l e and duty cycl e. The annual energy
savi ngs f or thi s appl i cati on i s:
(26.05 21.99) kW x 8,000 hour s/year = 32,480 kWh/year
At an el ect ri cal rate of $0.05/kWh, the val ue of these savi ngs i s:
32,480 kWh x $0.05/kWh = $1,624/year
The above exampl e i l l ustrates that al though earl y repl acement of an ol der eddy-
current dri ve wi th an el ectroni c ASD may not meet the two-year si mpl e payback
i f a uti l i ty ef f i ci ency i ncenti ve i s avai l abl e. Other f actors that may f avor
repl acement i ncl ude predi cti ve mai ntenance tests i ndi cati ng an i mpendi ng f ai l ure
Load 0oos|derat|oos
-
ti ons such as a punch press or a crusher. Eddy-current dri ves can produce more
-
tor of 150% to 200%. Eddy-current dri ves can be used wi th standard ef f i ci ency
motors, do not produce harmoni c di storti on, are not subj ect to nui sance tri ps due
to power di sturbances, and operate i ndependentl y of the motor power suppl y vol t-
age. As eddy-current dri ves are not di rectl y coupl ed to the l oad shaf t, they do not
transmi t vi brati ons to the motor and provi de i nherent protecti on agai nst l oad sei -
zures. I nstal l ers must ensure that operati onal probl ems are not created through i n-
stal l ati on of an el ectroni c ASD.
Nagoet|ca||y 0o0p|ed Adj0stab|e Speed Notor 0r|ves
Adj0stab|e Speed 0r|ve 0verv|ew
Al ternati ng current el ectri c motors rotate at a nearl y constant speed that i s
may be avai l abl e when f i xed speed systems are modi f i ed to al l ow the motor speed
1

Loads that vary over ti me by 30% of f ul l l oad of f er good opportuni ti es f or cost
ef fecti ve adj ustabl e speed dri ve (ASD) retrof i ts. Market assessment studi es i ndi cate
that i n l i ght and medi um i ndustry 26% of motors exhi bi t f l uctuati ng l oads; 22% of
these are i n process i ndustri es and 35% are i n other heavy i ndustri es.
2
However,
motor systems are of 20 hp or l esswi th the ASD of ten i nstal l ed for i mproved
control over the producti on process rather than energy savi ngs.
|ectroo|c AS0s
The current state-of-the-art speed control i s the el ectroni c ASD. Because of thei r
energy ef f i ci ency and control capabi l i ti es, el ectroni c ASD and motor combi nati ons
have repl aced constant speed motors i n vi rtual l y every type of i ndustri al pl ant.
Al though el ectroni c ASDs have been avai l abl e for more than 20 years, they are not
sui ted f or al l appl i cati ons. For exampl e, an esti mated 15% to 20% of i ndustri al
pl ants use medi um vol tage (>600 to 6600 vol ts) to suppl y power to motors rated as
l ow as 250 hp. Semi conductors f or medi um vol tage motor appl i cati ons are
parti cul arl y expensi ve. Dependi ng on the si tuati on, other f actors that can
di scourage el ect roni c ASD use i ncl ude:
ground through the beari ng
Nagoet|ca||y 0o0p|ed AS0s
I n contrast to an el ectroni c ASD, a magneti cal l y coupl ed ASD does not al ter the
power suppl i ed to the motor. Wi th a magneti cal l y coupl ed ASD, the motor i s
general l y brought up to operati ng speed whi l e unl oaded. The motor conti nues to
magneti c f i el d between the motor shaf t and the l oad shaf t. The strength of the
magneti c f i el d i s control l ed by varyi ng the wi dth of an adj ustabl e ai r gap or by
varyi ng the amount of current appl i ed to an el ectromagnet.
Because the l oad and motor shaf ts are not di rectl y coupl ed i n magneti cal l y coupl ed
ASDs, vi brati ons that occur on the l oad si de are i sol ated and not transmi tted to the
motor. For i nstance, a newspri nt products pl ant recentl y i nstal l ed a magneti cal l y
coupl ed ASD for a 250 hp/2300 V motor runni ng a centri f ugal pump wi th a by-
S0ggested Act|oos
ccr|ar| peed rc|c| |r ]cu| p|ar|
||a| a|e ued |c d||.e cer||||ua|
purp W||| |||c||||r .a|.e c|
|ec||cu|a||cr (|]pa, ||re c|
cer||||ua| |ar e(u|pped W||| |r|e|
||a| a|e |r ue |c| rc|e ||ar 2,000
|cu| pe| ]ea|.
cc| e||ec||.ere c| |r|a|||r ar
e|ec||cr|c ASD c| rare||ca||]
ccup|ed ASD rc|c| ccr||c||e|.
|c| |r|e|red|a|e .c||ae rc|c|, W|er
er|||.e e(u|prer| carrc| |c|e|a|e
|a|rcr|c cu||er|, c| W|e|e ra|r|e-
rarce |e(u||erer| a|e ||| due |c
|cad .|||a||cr |e|r ||ar|e||ed |c
||e rc|c| |ea||r.
8eso0rces
a| (8//, 88/-84o8.
Assoc|at|on (hFNA}-V||| ||e \E|A
pass f l ow control val ve. Thi s proj ect resul ted i n annual energy savi ngs of 633,000
kWh. Long-term mai ntenance costs decreased as pump cavi tati on was el i mi nated
and vi brati on was dramati cal l y reduced.
3
Magneti cal l y coupl ed ASDs do not have to be housed i n a control l ed envi ronment.
They al l ow for mul ti pl e motor starts wi th no cool -of f peri od and are desi rabl e
resul t i n excessi ve nui sance tri ps. Load sei zure protecti on i s al so i nherent wi th thi s
desi gn. Because magneti c coupl ed ASDs operate i ndependent of motor power
suppl y vol tage, they are of ten cost-ef fecti ve i n appl i cati ons wi th medi um vol tage
power suppl i es. Other advantages i ncl ude: compati bi l i ty wi th exi sti ng standard
ef f i ci ency motors; avoi dance of addi ti onal motor heati ng and the need f or motor
de-rati ng; and accommodati on of shaf t thermal expansi on.
Di sadvantages of magneti cal l y coupl ed ASDs i ncl ude space and wei ght
constrai nts. Some are not compati bl e wi th verti cal shaf t motors or bel t-dri ven
speci al i zed trai ni ng.
Magneti cal l y coupl ed ASDs of f er some operati ng advantages that are desi rabl e for
ni che appl i cati ons by provi di ng speed control that can be up to 30% more ef f i ci ent
than damper f an control and 44% more ef f i ci ent than throttl ed pump control .
However, they capture onl y about 60% of the energy savi ngs obtai nabl e wi th
conventi onal el ectroni c ASDs. Savi ngs decrease as the turndown i ncreases.
4

8eIereoces
1. ADM Associ ates, I nc., Adj ustabl e-Speed Dri ve Case Studi es, prepared for the
Wi sconsi n Center for Demand-Si de Management, 1994.
2. Xenergy, I nc., Uni ted States I ndustr i al Motor Systems Mar ket Oppor tuni ti es
Assessment, prepared for the U.S. Department of Energy s Of f ice of I ndustri al
Technol ogi es, December, 1998.
3. Northwest Energy Ef f i ci ency Al l i ance, Fi el d Testi ng the MagnaDr i ve Coupl i ng
Speed Contr ol Technol ogy on Nor thwest I ndustr i al Appl i cati ons, Case Study:
Ponderay Newspri nt, Usk, Washi ngton 2000, www.nwal l i ance.org/research/
documents/MagnaDri veCS_Pnderay2.6.pdf
4. Motor Systems Resource Faci l i ty, Oregon State Uni versi ty, Product Testi ng:
MagnaDri ve, Report No. 1, Prepared for the Northwest Energy Ef f i ci ency
Al l i ance, March, 2000, www.nwal l i ance.org/resources/reports/00-048.pdf
Dan Greenberg, Pl atts Resear ch and Consul ti ng, Magneti cal l y Coupl ed
Adj ustabl e-Speed Dri ves: Goi ng Where No VFD Has Gone Bef ore, ER-03-18,
November, 2003.
the Northwest Energy Ef f i ci ency Al l i ance, Report E02-099, May, 2002.
wheo Sho0|d |overter-00ty Notors 8e Spec|I|ed?
El ectroni c adj ustabl e speed dri ves (ASDs) used to be marketed as usabl e wi th any
standard motor. However, premature f ai l ures of motor i nsul ati on systems began
to occur wi th the i ntroducti on of f ast-swi tchi ng pul se-wi dth modul ated (PWM)
dri ves. The swi tchi ng rates of modern power semi conductors can l ead to vol tage
overshoots. These vol tage spi kes can rapi dl y damage a motor s i nsul ati on system,
resul ti ng i n premature f ai l ure of the motor.
IIects oI AS0s oo |od0ct|oo Notors
on motor wi ndi ngs, magneti c noi se, and the creati on of shaf t currents. These
ef f ects can combi ne to damage a motor s i nsul ati on and severel y shorten a motor s
usef ul operati ng l i f e.
Hi gh swi tchi ng rates of modern power semi conductors l ead to rapi d changes i n
mi crosecond). Steep-f ronted waves wi th l arge dv/dt or very f ast ri se ti mes l ead to
vol tage overshoots and other power suppl y probl ems.
When the motor i mpedance i s l arger than the conductor cabl e i mpedance, the
vol t age wave f or m wi l l ref l ect at the motor termi nal s, creati ng a standi ng wave
(see Fi gure 1). Longer motor cabl es
f avor the f ormati on of hi gher ampl i t ude
standi ng waves. Vol t age spi kes have
been reported wi th peak val ues as hi gh
as 2150 vol ts i n a 460 V system
operati ng at 10% over-vol tage. Hi gh
vol t age spi kes can l ead to i nsul ati on
breakdown, resul ti ng i n phase-to-phase
or t urn-to-t urn short ci rcui ts, wi th
dri ve sensor.
|overter-00ty Notor 0es|gos
Sol uti ons used to prevent motor f ai l ures due to vol tage spi kes i ncl ude the use of
and pl aci ng restri cti ons on the di stance or l ead l ength between the dri ve and the
motor. Some dri ve i nstal l ers al so speci f y oversi zed motors or hi gh-temperature-
resi stant Cl ass H i nsul ati on.
I nverter-duty motors are wound wi th vol tage spi ke-resi stant, i nverter-grade
magnet wi re to mi ni mi ze adverse ef f ects of ASD-produced waveforms. I mproved
i nsul ati on systems do not degrade as readi l y when subj ected to transi ent vol tage
spi kes. A greater thi ckness or bui l d-up of premi um varni sh (through mul ti pl e di ps
and bakes) mi ni mi zes the potenti al f or i nternal voi ds, and a l ower heat ri se desi gn
S0ggested Act|oos
rc|c| raru|ac|u|e| a|cu| |r.e||e|
||e ||re ard ca||e |er|| e||ec|,
ard ue ||| |r|c|ra||cr |c e.a|ua|e
||e a|||||] c| e/|||r rc|c| |c
W||||ard d||.e-|rduced .c||ae
||ee.
ere|a||] rc| a p|c||er W|er ||e
d||arce |e|Weer ||e rc|c| ard ||e
d||.e | |e ||ar 1o |ee|.
cccu| W||| ra||e| rc|c| ard d||.e
W||| |a|e| ||e ||re.
Wa.e | epec|a||] ||| W|er
ru|||p|e rc|c| a|e |ur ||cr a |r|e
ASD.
8eso0rces
a| (8//, 88/-84o8.
Assoc|at|on (hFNA} V||| ||e \E|A
F|g0re 1. PwN p0|se w|th reI|ected
vo|tage or r|og|og
af fects the corona i ncepti on vol tage (CI V) of a motor. The CI V i s a measure of the
abi l i ty of the motor s wi ndi ngs to wi thstand vol tage stresses and i s the vol tage at
whi ch parti al di scharges begi n to occur.
Many manuf act urers of fer i nverter-f ri endl y i nsul ati on i n thei r NEMA Premi um

wi de speed range. The Nati onal El ectri cal Manuf acturers Associ ati on (NEMA)
speci f i es that i nsul ati on systems for l ow vol tage ( 600 V) i nverter-duty motors
be desi gned to wi thstand an upper l i mi t of 3.1 ti mes the motor s rated l i ne-to-l i ne
mi crosecond.
The i nsul ati on system on a 208/230 vol t motor i s i denti cal to that of a 460 V
motor. Thus, vol tage spi kes produced by i nverters on 208 V or 230 V systems are
Larger i nverter-dut y motors of ten have a constant speed auxi l i ary bl ower to
wi th a shaf t groundi ng brush wi th a ground strap f rom the motor to the dri ve case.
Notor Se|ect|oo 60|de||oes
motors used wi th ASDs. When operated under usual servi ce condi ti ons, no
si gni f i cant reducti on i n servi ce l i f e shoul d occur i f the peak vol tage at the motor
Contact the motor manuf acturer f or gui dance rel ati ng to motor/dri ve
compati bi l i ty when peak vol tages or ri se ti mes are expected to exceed these
l i mi ts. A def i ni te-purpose i nverter-duty motor and/or f i l ters, chokes, or other
manuf actured to meet the most current speci f i cati ons def i ned by NEMA MG 1
Secti on I V, Perf ormance Standards Appl yi ng to Al l Machi nes, Part 31
Def i ni te-Purpose I nverter-Fed Pol yphase Motors.
N|o|m|ze Adverse Notor aod Adj0stab|e Speed 0r|ve |oteract|oos
El ectroni c adj ustabl e speed dri ves (ASDs) are an extremel y ef f i ci ent and val uabl e
asset to motor systems. They al l ow preci se process cont rol and provi de energy
savi ngs wi thi n systems that do not need to conti nuousl y operate at f ul l output.
The most common ASD desi gn sol d today i s the pul se-wi dth modul ated (PWM)
ASD wi th a f ast ri se-ti me i nsul ated gate bi pol ar t ransi stor (I GBT) to reduce
ri se ti me transi stors on PWM ASDs can produce vol tage spi kes or overshoots that
can stress motor wi ndi ngs and beari ngs. These probl ems can be el i mi nated
|ectroo|c Adj0stab|e Speed 0r|ve 0haracter|st|cs
Al l el ectroni c adj ustabl e speed dri ves recti f y the 60 Hz f i xed vol tage al ternati ng
current (AC) to di rect current (DC), and use an i nverter to si mul ate an adj ustabl e
create the AC vol tage output, but
have very hi gh l osses when they
create wave shapes other than
To mi ni mi ze swi tchi ng l osses and
approxi mate si ne waves, ASDs
operate these swi tches f ul l -on or
f undamental , usual l y between 2
kHz and 20 kHz. Thi s i s cal l ed a
carri er wave (see Fi gure 1). Each on-porti on of the carri er wave i s cal l ed a pul se
and the durati on of on-ti me of each pul se i s cal l ed the pul se wi dth. The pul ses do
not turn on i nstantaneousl y; there i s a bri ef ri se ti me.
Di f f erent types of transi stors used i n dri ves have di f ferent ri se ti mes. Vol tage
to cause beari ng damage unl ess protecti ve measures are taken.
0es|go 0oos|derat|oos
Several desi gn consi derati ons shoul d be taken i nto account when purchasi ng an
ASD or f i xi ng probl ems wi th an exi sti ng one. On new i nstal l ati ons, ensure that no
harm comes to motors by mi ni mi zi ng the cabl e l ength f rom the ASD to the motor.
As shown i n Fi gure 2, ASDs can produce vol tage overshoots or spi kes wi th the
i ncrease over the normal peak vol tage dependent upon both cabl e l ength and
I n Fi gure 2, the vol tage i ncrease i s pl otted agai nst ri se ti me i n mi croseconds. Ri se
state val ue. The ri se ti me i s a characteri sti c of the power transi stor swi tches and
can be provi ded by the dri ve suppl i er. Modern I GBT swi tches operate wel l down
toward the l ef t si de of the graph so cabl e l engths of 50 f eet or more al most al ways
need mi ti gati on.
S0ggested Act|oos
Tc |e| a.c|d c| r|||a|e .c||ae
c.e||cc|, ccr|de| |cca||r ||e d||.e
c|ce |c ||e rc|c|. w|e|e ||| | rc|
pc|||e, ccr|de| |r|a|||r ||||e||r
de.|ce uc| a.
ca||e
rc|c| erd c| ||e ca||e.
E||r|ra|e p|c||er c| cu||er| ||cW
ac|c ||e |c|||r e|erer| c| ||e
rc|c|' |ea||r |] |c|a||r |c||
|ea||r c| u|r a |a||-|curd|r
||u|.
8eso0rces
||e Be|P|ac||ce we| ||e
|e|p|ac||ce, c| ccr|ac| ||e
EERE |r|c|ra||cr Cer|e| a|
(8//, 88/-84o8.
Assoc|at|on (hFNA} V||| ||e \E|A
F|g0re 1. S|oe wave over|a|d oo sg0are
carr|er waves
Longer cabl es ref l ect the vol tage ri se so that the ref l ecti ons rei nforce the ori gi nal
pul se ri se. Thi s produces el ectri cal resonance or ri ngi ng characteri zed by an
osci l l ati ng vol tage overshoot. Wi th short cabl es, rapi d ri se ti me i s not a probl em.
Exi sti ng general purpose l ow-vol tage motors may work f i ne wi th PWM ASDs i f
overshoots exceed 1000 vol ts, el ectri cal st resses can cause a turn-to-turn short
wi thi n a motor coi l group, usual l y wi thi n the f i rst coupl e of turns.
Vol tage overshoot i s best avoi ded by l ocati ng the dri ve cl ose to the motor. I f a
short cabl e run i s not possi bl e, a f i l teri ng devi ce must be used. Someti mes ASD
manuf acturers provi de a f i l ter devi ce al ong wi th the dri ve or even i n the dri ve
cabi net. There are two commonl y used f i l ter arrangementsl i ne i nductor s
(someti mes cal l ed l oad reactors), whi ch shoul d be pl aced at the dri ve end of the
cabl e, and har moni c suppr essi on fi l ter s, whi ch are pl aced at the motor end of the
cabl e. There are some l osses associ ated wi th the f i l ters, so keepi ng cabl es short i s
sti l l the best al ternati ve.
The f ast ri se ti me pul ses f rom a PWM ASD can al so create a potenti al l y harmf ul
current f l ow i n beari ngs even when over-vol tage i s not si gni f i cant. Causes i ncl ude
common mode vol tage probl ems and/or l i ne vol tage unbal ance on the ASD i nput.
Capaci ti ve coupl i ng, resul ti ng f rom i rregul ar current waveforms and ground-mode
currents, can cause beari ng f ai l ure due to rapi d vol tage changes and a hi gh
el ements of the motor s beari ngs. Probl ems can al so occur i n dri ven-l oad beari ngs
i f i nsul ated coupl i ngs are not used. El i mi nate these probl ems by i sol ati ng both
beari ngs or usi ng a shaf t groundi ng brush.
lucrease 0ver hormal Peak Voltage
Rise Time ( s}
1.00 0.1 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 8.0 8.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
2.00
1.80
1.O0
1.40
1.20
50' 0ab|e
100' 0ab|e
200' 0ab|e
500' 0ab|e
F|g0re 2. IIect oI cab|e |eogth oo vo|tage |ocrease
Appand|x 0:
Appand|x 0:

standards.
Economy (ACEEE) and the Nati onal El ectri cal Manuf acturers Associ ati on
i ndustri al el ectri c motors. ACEEE and NEMA have submi tted l etters contai ni ng
these recommendati ons to the House Energy and Commerce Commi ttee and the
Senate Energy and Natural Resources Commi ttee f or thei r consi derati on i n energy
l egi sl ati on now under devel opment.

establ i shed or i ncreased f or three broad categori es of el ectri c motors by a date
the purchasi ng gui del i nesof the Federal Energy Management Program.
i ntegral -horsepower i nducti on motors not currentl y covered under f ederal l aw.
standards currentl y appl i cabl e to general purpose motors of the same si ze (i .e.,
12-11).
3. I n addi ti on, general purpose motors of NEMA desi gn B 201 to 500 horsepower
MG-1 (2006), Tabl e 12-11.
The Act appl i es to general purpose, T-Frame, si ngl e-speed, f oot-mounted,
Manuf acturers Associ ati on (NEMA) Desi gns A and B. The subj ect motors are
desi gned to operate on 230/460 vol ts and 60 Hertz and have open and cl osed
encl osures. The Act appl i es to 6 pol e (1200 RPM), 4 pol e (1800 RPM), and 2
pol e (3600 RPM) open and encl osed motors rated 1 through 200 horsepower. The
unusual condi ti ons or f or use on a parti cul ar type of appl i cati on whi ch cannot be
used i n most general appl i cati ons) or speci al purpose motors (i .e., those desi gned
f or a parti cul ar appl i cati on wi th speci al operati ng characteri sti cs or mechani cal
constructi on).
Appand|x 0:
The NEMA Motor and Generator Secti on establ i shed a NEMA Premi um
l evel s.
i n Tabl es 12-12 and 12-13, respecti vel y.

Notor Horsapowar
0pan Notors Fnc|osad Notors
Spaad (8PN}
1200 1800 300 1200 1800 300
1 80.0 82.5 -- 80.0 82.5 75.5
1.5 84.0 84.0 82.5 85.5 84.0 82.5
2 85.5 84.0 84.0 8.5 84.0 84.0
3 8.5 8.5 84.0 87.5 87.5 85.5
5 87.5 87.5 85.5 87.5 87.5 87.5
7.5 88.5 88.5 87.5 89.5 89.5 88.5
10 90.2 89.5 88.5 89.5 89.5 89.5
15 90.2 91.0 89.5 90.2 91.0 90.2
20 91.0 91.0 90.2 90.2 91.0 90.2
25 91.7 91.7 91.0 91.7 92.4 91.0
30 92.4 92.4 91.0 91.7 92.4 91.0
40 93.0 93.0 91.7 93.0 93.0 91.7
50 93.0 93.0 92.4 93.0 93.0 92.4
0 93. 93. 93.3 93. 93. 93.0
75 93. 94.1 93.0 93. 94.1 93.0
100 94.1 93.0 93. 94.1 94.5 93.
125 94.1 94.5 93. 94.1 94.5 94.5
150 94.5 95.0 93.. 95.0 95.0 94.5
200 94.5 95.0 94.5 95.0 95.0 95.0
Appand|x 0:
|nduct|on Notors
8atad 00 Vo|ts or Lass (8andom wound}
hp
0pan 0r|p-Proof
1200 8PN (-po|a} 1800 8PN (4-po|a} 300 8PN (2-po|a}
FPAct* FPAct* FPAct*
1 80.0 82.5 82.5 85.5 h/A 77.0
1.5 84.0 8.5 84.0 8.5 82.5 84.0
2 85.5 87.5 84.0 8.5 84.0 85.5
3 8.5 88.5 8.5 89.5 84.0 85.5
5 87.5 89.5 87.5 89.5 85.5 8.5
7.5 88.5 90.2 88.5 91.0 87.5 88.5
10 90.2 91.7 89.5 91.7 88.5 89.5
15 90.2 91.7 91.0 93.0 89.5 90.2
20 91.0 92.4 91.0 93.0 90.2 91.0
25 91.7 93.0 91.7 93. 91.0 91.7
30 92.4 93. 92.4 94.1 91.0 91.7
40 93.0 94.1 93.0 94.1 91.7 92.4
50 93.0 94.1 93.0 94.5 92.4 93.0
0 93. 94.5 93. 95.0 93.0 93.
75 93. 94.5 94.1 95.0 93.0 93.
100 94.1 95.0 94.1 95.4 93.0 93.
125 94.1 95.0 94.5 95.4 93. 94.1
150 94.5 95.4 95.0 95.8 93. 94.1
200 94.5 95.4 95.0 95.8 94.5 95.0
250 95.4 95.8 95.0
300 95.4 95.8 95.4
350 95.4 95.8 95.4
400 95.8 95.8 95.8
450 9.2 9.2 95.8
500 9.2 9.2 95.8
Appand|x 0:
|nduct|on Notors 8atad 00 Vo|ts or Lass (8andom wound}

hp
Tota||y Fnc|osad Fan-0oo|ad
1200 8PN (-po|a} 1800 8PN (4-po|a} 300 8PN (2-po|a}
FPAct* FPAct* FPAct*
1 80.0 82.5 82.5 85.5 75.5 77.0
1.5 85.5 87.5 84.0 8.5 82.5 84.0
2 8.5 88.5 84.0 8.5 84.0 85.5
3 87.5 89.5 87.5 89.5 85.5 8.5
5 87.5 89.5 87.5 89.5 87.5 88.5
7.5 89.5 91.0 89.5 91.7 88.5 89.5
10 89.5 91.0 89.5 91.7 89.5 90.2
15 90.2 91.7 91.0 92.4 90.2 91.0
20 90.2 91.7 91.0 93.0 90.2 91.0
25 91.7 93.0 92.4 93. 91.0 91.7
30 91.7 93.0 92.4 93. 91.0 91.7
40 93.0 94.1 93.0 94.1 91.7 92.4
50 93.0 94.1 93.0 94.5 92.4 93.0
0 93. 94.5 93. 95.0 93.0 93.
75 93. 94.5 94.1 95.4 93.0 93.
100 94.1 95.0 94.5 95.4 93. 94.1
125 94.1 95.0 94.5 95.4 94.5 95.0
150 95.0 95.8 95.0 95.8 94.5 95.0
200 95.0 95.8 95.0 9.2 95.0 95.4
250 95.8 9.2 95.8
300 95.8 9.2 95.8
350 95.8 9.2 95.8
400 95.8 9.2 95.8
450 95.8 9.2 95.8
500 95.8 9.2 95.8
Appand|x 0:
|nduct|on Notors 8atad Nad|um Vo|ts

- 5kV or Lass (Form wound}
0peo 0r|p-ProoI
hp -po|a 4-po|a 2-po|a
250-500 95.0 95.0 94.5
|nduct|on Notors 8atad Nad|um Vo|ts

- 5kV or Lass (Form wound}
Tota||y oc|osed Fao-0oo|ed
hp -po|a 4-po|a 2-po|a
250-500 95.0 95.0 95.0
Appand|x 0:
Appand|x 0: Notor 8apa|r Sarv|ca 0antar 0hack||st
105
Appand|x 0: Notor 8apa|r Sarv|ca
0antar 0hack||st
mai nl y to the abi l i ty to do certai n repai rs that may not routi nel y be part of al l motor
Notor 8apa|r Sarv|ca 0antar 0hack||st
0apac|ty 0apab|||ty (for mu|t|p|a dav|cas, ||st max|mum capab|||ty of aach}
8aw|nd 0apab|||ty Tast|ng
weight ______ ______
leugth ______ ______
Diameter ______ ______
Horsepower ______ ______
Voltage ______ ______
Record Keepi ng
0heck services offered.
Raudom wouud pol]phase ac motor repair
Form wouud pol]phase ac motor repair
dc motor repair
8iugle-phase motor repair
Nachiue shop capaoilit]
10
Control l ed Burn-out; typi cal temperature ____F
(I f someti mes hi gher, expl ai n ci rcumstances.)
Chemi cal Stri ppi ng
Mechani cal Pul l i ng at temperature under 400F
Other
How does the servi ce center ensure that the correct wi re si zes and types
On random wound motors, i s wi ndi ng pattern ever revi sed f or reasons
Yes No
Lap to concentri c
Concentri c to l ap
Other (expl ai n)
_____ More than 8 years
_____ 4 - 8 years
_____ Less than 4 years
What sort of suppl emental trai ni ng or prof essi onal devel opment acti vi ty
I n-house trai ni ng or structured mentori ng (Descri be)
Of f -si te short courses, workshops or semi nars one or more
days i n l ength
Subsi di zed eveni ng or part-ti me cl asses at col l ege or trade school
Attendance at trade conf erences or conventi ons
Other

How much trai ni ng or prof essi onal devel opment do servi ce center
_____ Percentage of empl oyees recei vi ng of f si te trai ni ng annual l y
_____ Average days off -si te per year per empl oyee recei vi ng
of f si te trai ni ng
_____ Annual trai ni ng expendi ture per empl oyee recei vi ng
of f -si te trai ni ng
Burnout most common. Best i f core kept
under 680F.
Mechani cal pul l i ng at reduced temperature
l oads. I t i s rare i n Uni ted States.
wi re si zes i s i mportant. Avai l abi l i ty f rom
or expl anati on of strandi ng to repl i cate
ori gi nal ci rcul ar mi l l s can al l be acceptabl e.
Wi re shoul d be i nverter grade i f i nverter
powered motors wi l l be rewound.
I t i s best to repl i cate the ori gi nal wi ndi ng
repl i cate some stator wi ndi ngs. Servi ce
center shoul d have pol i ci es and techni cal
gui des to ensure ori gi nal or better motor
perf ormance.
Desi rabl e to have 20% or more wi th more
than 4 years experi ence.
Parti ci pati on i n j ob-rel ated trai ni ngs i s
commendabl e. EASA off ers many trai ni ng
courses and hol ds an annual conventi on.
A trai ni ng program cul ture i nvol vi ng f ormal
i nternal or off -si te trai ni ng i s desi rabl e.
Moni tori ng f or conti nuous i mprovement
such as tracki ng scrap rate and compl eted
motor test resul ts contri butes to a more
competent and caref ul staff .
At l east 10% shoul d recei ve annual of f -si te
trai ni ng.
One or more days off -si te desi rabl e.
$300 or more per empl oyee desi rabl e.
107
I n what trade or prof essi onal associ ati ons does servi ce center have
Loop or ri ng test; max kVA____
Commerci al tester; max kVA____
Yes No
Check f or hot spots to be repai red
Note watts per pound and compare to a standard
Document i mpact of burnout/rewi nd to customer

Yes No

Fqu|pmant 0a||brat|on
I tem Normal Date l ast
i nterval cal i brated
Ammeters _____________ _____________
Wattmeters _____________ _____________
Core Loss Tester _____________ _____________
Burnout oven temp. _____________ _____________
Mi crometers & Cal i pers _____________ _____________
Megohmmeter _____________ _____________
Vol tmeter _____________ _____________
al though very l arge servi ce centers may
have i n-house capabi l i ty to provi de si mi l ar
F or H desi rabl e.
Usi ng a tester on al l motors i s evi dence that
servi ce center i s consci enti ous about core
l osses.
Certai nl y check f or hot spots. Noti ng watts
per pound and compari son to standard or
bef ore and af ter testi ng i s commendabl e.
Thi s shoul d be mandatory f or operati onal
motors. I f not, determi ne why not. Test
shoul d veri f y rotati on at namepl ate speed
i n the correct di recti on and check f or
abnormal sounds. I t shoul d al so ensure that
vi brati on and beari ng temperature are not
abnormal l y hi gh.
Annual
Annual
Annual
Annual
Annual OK; 6 months better. May be done
bl ocks.
Annual
Annual
108
Surge Compari son Tester
Brand _____
Model _____

ac Power Suppl y
Vol tage Range_____
kVA_____

dc Power Suppl y
Vol tage Range _____
kW______

What % of motor rewi nd j obs get core l oss testi ng both before and after
rewi ndi ng? _____%
Varni sh and resi ns
spec.________
spec.________
spec.________
spec.________
spec.________
Brand________
Model ________
Brand________
Model ________
ac rati ng_______
dc rati ng_______

Annual
Annual on vol ts, amps, and power f actor
or watts unl ess these are moni tored by the
portabl e i nstruments above.
Annual on vol ts, amps, or watts unl ess
these are moni tored by the portabl e
i nstruments above.
I deal l y 100%. Expl ai n l ower percentages.
Sampl e shoul d have been taken and
anal yzed every 2-3 months, to ensure no
degradati on f rom agi ng.
Manuf acturer s materi al specs shoul d be on
Annual
109
0ocumants and 8acord Kaap|ng
Check whether cur rent copi es of al l the fol l owi ng documents are present. The dates
shown bel ow are cur rent as of thi s pr i nti ng:
NEMA MG1-2003 Motors and Generators
ABMA Std 7 Shaf t & Housi ng Fi ts f or Metri c Radi al Bal l & Rol l er Beari ngs.
1995
ABMA Std 20 Radi al Beari ngs of Bal l , Cyl i ndri cal Rol l er and Spheri cal Rol l er
Types Metri c Desi gn. 1996
Rotors Part 1. 2003
I SO 10816-1 Mechani cal vi brati on Eval uati on of machi ne vi brati on by
measurements on non-rotati ng parts Part 1: General gui del i nes. 1995
I EEE Std 43 Testi ng I nsul ati on Resi stance of Rotati ng Machi nes. 2000
I EEE Std 112 Test Procedures f or Pol yphase I nducti on Motors and Generators.
2004
I EEE Std 432 I nsul ati on Mai ntenance f or Rotati ng El ectri c Machi nery (5 HP to
Less Than 10,000 HP). 1992
I EEE Std 1068 Recommended Practi ce f or the Repai r and Rewi ndi ng of Motors
f or the Petrol eum & Chemi cal I ndustry. 1996 (2)
UL 674 El ectri c Motors and Generators f or Use i n Di vi si on 1 Hazardous
EASA Techni cal Manual . 2002 (2)
EASA Wi ndi ng DATA on CD. 2001 (2)
EASA Warranty. October 1999 (2)
ANSI /EASA AR100-2001 Recommended Practi ce f or the Repai r of Rotati ng
El ectri cal Apparatus
(1) Not appl i cabl e f or servi ce centers whi ch do not serve thi s market
Ref erence:
Qual i ty El ectr i c Motor Repai r : A Gui debook for El ectr i c Uti l i ti es. Thi s document,
pri nted by Bonnevi l l e Power Admi ni strati on as DOE/BP-2747, Nov. 1995 and
El ectri c Power Research I nsti tute as EPRI TR-105730s, June 1996. The Bonnevi l l e
Power pri nti ng i s avai l abl e f or downl oad at www.osti .gov.
Ori gi nal text authored by Johnny Dougl ass, Washi ngton State Uni versi ty Energy
Program
WSUEEP99004
110
Appand|x F: 0u|da||nas for 0ommants
Appand|x F: 0u|da||nas for 0ommants
Comments that can correct and i mprove thi s sourcebook are appreci ated. Pl ease copy thi s page and provi de suggesti ons to
the address l i sted bel ow.
|mprov|ng Notor and 0r|va Parformanca: A Sourcabook for |ndustry 0ommant Form
Page Number(s)
Comments
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Contact: EERE I nf ormati on Center
P.O. Box 43165
Ol ympi a, WA 98504-3165
Phone: 877-EERE-I NF (887-337-3463)
Fax: 360-236-2023

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