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MINISTRY OF HIGHER AND SECONDARY SPECIAL EDUCATION KOKAND STATE PEDAGOGICAL INSTITUTE

English and Literature Department

COURSE PAPER
Theme: The usage of slang units as a peculiarity of characters speech in the TV show Buffy the Vampire Slayer.

Prepared by: Ruzimatova Nigora Checked by:

Kokand - 2012

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION.3 CHAPTER I. Slang as a Linguistic Notion...5

1.1. 1.2.

The Notion of Slang as Viewed by Scholars.5 The Distinction between Slang and other Lexical Units in Informal Layer of Language.7

1.3. 1.4.

Different Approaches towards the Classification of Slang...10 The Reasons for the Usage of Slang.13

CHAPTER II. Linguistic and Stylistic Analysis of Slang Units on the Basis of
Episodes Found in the Script....15

CONCLUSIONS..24 LIST OF REFERENCES.25

Introduction

The present research paper is focused on the usage of slang units as a peculiarity of characters speech in the TV show Buffy the Vampire Slayer. The overall aim of the paper is to analyze the peculiarities of slang units, the ways of their classification and the reasons for usage. In order to achieve this aim the following tasks should be realized: to discuss different classifications and approaches towards the notion of slang; To identify social and stylistic boundaries of slang units; for this process the distinction between slang words and jargonisms, argots, colloquialisms is needed; To analyze slang units and identify its functions in the TV show;
To

suggest the equivalences for the examples of particular interest;

The subject of this research is the usage of slang units in the TV show. The object of this research paper is the lingual structure of slang units and its pragmatic function in the characters speech. The research was carried out on the basis of approximately forty examples selected from the script. The methodology of the research has a complex character because of the polyaspectual nature of the problem. Such methods as componential analysis, structural and semantic analysis (description of the semantic structure of a linguistic phenomenon as they function in speech) as well as method of dictionary definitions are used in the course of the research. The present research paper consists of the introduction, two chapters, conclusions and list of references. The introduction represents the choice of the topic, the aim of the present research paper; its actuality and novelty; it defines both the object and the subject of research. The first chapter focuses on theoretical aspects of slang units. It outlines different approaches towards the very notion of slang, the ways of classification as viewed by different scholars. Also it provides the distinction between slang units and jargonisms, argots, dialects and colloquialisms. The second chapter is a practical part of the research paper. It provides the analysis of slang units used in the script.

The work ends with the conclusion and list of references. Buffy the Vampire Slayer was voted number three in TV Guide's Top 25 Cult TV Shows of All Time and included in TIME Magazine's 100 Best TV Shows of All Time. It was nominated for Emmy and Golden Globe awards, winning a total of 3 Emmys. The series' narrative revolves around Buffy and her friends who struggle to balance the fight against supernatural evils with their complex social lives. Though elements and relationships are explored and ongoing subplots are included, the show focuses primarily on Buffy and her role as an archetypal heroine.

Chapter I. Slang as a Linguistic Notion

1.1. The Notion of Slang as Viewed by Scholars

The word-stock of any given language can be roughly divided into three uneven groups, differing from each other by the sphere of its potential usage. The largest subdivision consists of neutral words, possessing no stylistic connotations and suitable for any communicative situation; two smaller ones are literary and colloquial strata respectively [14, p.19]. Literary words, both general (also called learned, bookish, high-flown) and special, contribute to the message the tone of solemnity, sophistication, seriousness and gravity. They are used in official papers and documents, in scientific communication, in poetry, in authorial speech of creative prose. Colloquial words, on the contrary, mark the message as informal, non-official, and conversational. Apart from general colloquial words, widely used by all speakers of the language in their everyday communication (e.g. dad, kid, crony, fan, to pop, folks), such special subgroups may be mentioned: slang, jargonisms, vulgarisms and dialectal words. There is hardly any other term that is as ambiguous and obscure as the term slang. Slang seems to mean everything that is below the standard usage of present-day language. The notion of slang has been causing much controversy for many years. Much has been said and written about it. A lot of different opinions have been expressed concerning its nature, its boundaries and the attitude that should be adopted towards it. This is probably due to the uncertainty of the concept itself. No one has yet given a more or less precise definition of the term. Nor has it been specified by any linguist who deals with the problem of the English vocabulary. Longmans dictionary of contemporary English suggests the following definition: slang is very informal, sometimes offensive language that is used especially by people who belong to a particular group, such as young people or criminals [21, p.1550]. According to I.V. Arnold there are several definitions of slang. One of them implies the idea that slang is a word or phrase with specific emotional coloring, which is not accepted in literary language [1, p.15]. The scholar considered slang to be the corpus of lexemes with specific connotations of evaluation, expressiveness and emotionality, which make slang unit different from its neutral synonyms [1, p.114].

V.O. Khomyakov believed that slang is specific periphery lexical layer which does not relate to the literary language and dialects. Professor included professional lexis and phraseology of social jargonisms, argots on the one hand and emotionally-expressive units and phraseology of non-literary lexical units on the other hand. Due to this distinction, he identified two groups of slang special and general [12, p.76]. According to I.R. Galperin, slang is an integral part of the colloquial layer of language as well as vulgar words, professionalisms, jargonisms and dialectal words. His point of view was that all of these word groups are used in emotive prose to stress certain locality, breeding or education of the speaker. They also possess divergent features which help to distinguish among them [3, p.109]. I.R Galperin believed that the notion of slang, which is a deviation from literary norm, can occur on phonetic, lexical, morphological and syntactic levels [18, p.108]. The scholar stressed the idea that nowadays American variant of the English language is more open to lexemes which are not characterized by literary norms than before [4, p.9]. O.D. Shveitser and his theoretical ideas were of great importance in the process of researching the notion of slang. The scholar described American slang in the sociolinguistic aspect, paying attention to lexico-semantic and morphological forms of word-building and functional peculiarities. He separated components of special slang vernacular elements of professional lexis on the one hand and jargonisms, argots on the other hand, and pointed that these two groups differ from each other by functional characteristics. Lexical units of the first group are alternative equivalents of normative lexis with colouring, but the elements of the second group are coloured signs [13, p.158]. M.M. Makovskyi yet provides another definition: slang is a special variant of lexical, phonetical and grammatical norms of the English language, established historically on the basis of a colloquial dialect [5, p.106]. As can be seen from above-provided examples slang is an ambiguous notion, and a single definition has not been yet accepted. The definitions and the perceptions of the notion of slang are different, yet they have something in common: slang is the layer of language which embraces everything

that lies beyond the neutral vocabulary [7, p.109]. Further analysis of the slang units will be based on such a broad definition. 1.2. The Distinction between Slang and other Lexical Units in Informal Layer of Language Apart from slang colloquial strata of language embraces such lexical elements as dialects, jargonisms, argots and vulgarisms. All subgroups mentioned stand close to slang. In order to understand the essence of slang we need to penetrate deeper into the related notions. Dialectal words Dialect is a variety of a language, which prevails in a district, with local peculiarities of vocabulary, pronunciation and phrasing. They are normative and devoid of any stylistic meaning in regional dialects, but if used outside them a strong flavor of the locality where they belong is felt [14, p.32]. Regional or social lingual variant is characterized by the range of specific features on phonetic, grammatical and lexical levels. If the dialect is considered to be a part of non-standard English language, then regionally restricted slang is almost the same since it possesses similar characteristics. I.V. Arnold suggests that the dialect is connected with the vernacular language (commonly spoken language or dialect of the particular people or place), but R.I. Rosina considers slang to be expressive vernacular. Thus there is no significant difference between these close lexical layers. It is the notion of time that makes two concepts divergent: the main dialects, especially geographical which have their phonological, grammatical and lexical peculiarities, exist in language for a long time on the contrary to slang words, which are not characterized by the durability. One convergent feature between a slang word and a dialect is that they are used in speech and rarely are used in the written form [2, p.256]. Jargonisms and argots Jargonisms and argots are rather close to slang, also being substandard, expressive, and emotive. However, unlike slang they are used by limited groups, united either professionally (in this case we deal with professional jargonisms, or professionalisms) or

socially (here we deal with jargonisms proper). Jargonisms of both types cover a narrow semantic field. In the first case it is connected with the technical side of some professions: in oil industry, e.g., for the term driller () there exist other words: borer, digger, for pipelayer () swabber, bender, cat, old cat, etc. On the basis of examples provided above two points are evident: professionalisms are formed according to existing word-building patterns or presently existing words in new meanings, and, covering the field of special knowledge, which is semantically limited, they offer a wide variety of synonymic choices for naming one and the same professional item. When compared with jargonisms, slang is not used only by this or that social group and does not preserve secrecy. According to I.R. Galperin, professionalisms are characterized by technicality and are considered to be special words of non-literary layer of English word stock. But they should not be confused with jargonisms. As well as slang words they do not aim at secrecy, but perform the communicative function [18, p.109]. Jargonisms proper have the same linguistic features, but differ in function and sphere of application. They originated from the thieves jargon and served to conceal the actual significance of the utterance from the uninitiated. Their major function was to be cryptic, secretive. This is why among them there are cases of conscious deformation of the existing words. The so-called back jargon (or back slang) can serve as an example: in their effort to conceal the machinations of dishonest card playing, gamblers used numerals in their reverse form: ano, for one, owt for two, erth for three. Rarely are these lexemes distinguishable due to the historical circumstances. For example, slang is a word or phrase that is regarded as very informal and is often restricted to special contexts or is peculiar to a specified profession, class, etc. Other scholars consider slang to be the language peculiar to a specific group, special vocabulary or phraseology of a particular calling or profession. Anglo-American tradition, starting with Eric Partridge does not differentiate between slang and jargonisms, and regards these groups as one extensive stratum of words, which can be divided into general slang (used by all or most speakers) and special slang (limited by the professional or social standing of the speaker).

Argots are words or phrases which have the function of separating one group from society for hiding the aim of communication. This is a special language of restricted social group which uses transformed or artificially created words. Argot is a professional subculture. For example, the notion of computer is widely-spread in various spheres of our life and its users created special language which is completely different from professionalisms ( somebody who only start using computer, etc.) [6, p.81]. Vulgarisms Vulgarisms are coarse words with a strong emotive meaning, mostly derogatory, normally avoided in polite conversation. Nowadays words, which were labeled vulgar in the 18th and 19th centuries, are considered such no more. In fact, at present we are faced with the reverse of the problem: there are practically no words banned from the use by the modern permissive society. Such intensifiers as bloody, damned, cursed, hell of, formerly deleted from literature and not allowed in conversations, are not only welcomed in both written and oral speech, but due to constant repetition, have lost much of their emotional impact and substandard quality. What concerns vulgarisms, the scholars classified them into several groups. I.R. Galperins point of view was that some of them are not to be included in dictionaries. They are called euphemistically fourletter words. On the other hand, those vulgarisms with less degree of vulgarity, like damn are represented by expletives (an exclamation or swearword; an oath or a sound expressing an emotional reaction rather than any particular meaning). These words, as the scholar considered, function almost as interjections, and express strong emotions [18, p.107]. Colloquialisms Slang words and colloquialisms are the most difficult to distinguish. They are very close to the slang words, but on the other hand are stylistically neutral lexemes. It means that the very separation is made by the everyday speech, one part of which belongs to the standard language and the other to the non-standard. Eric Partridge expressed the idea that colloquial words are those belonging to that speech which is less respectable than standard but more respectable than slang. It is the term low colloquial which is to differentiate between these two notions. In fact, low colloquialisms are group of words

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which define a message as informal, something spoken and which contain slang words, jargonisms, vulgarisms, dialects. The colloquial is difficult to confine with practicable limits. Some lexicographers, especially S. Fleksner, were trying to find the ways to distinguish these two notions in the sphere of sociopsychology (slang displays that participants enjoy a special familiarity and colloquialisms only mention the very situation as informal). Slang Slang forms the most extensive layer. Slang words, used by most speakers in any informal communication, are highly emotive and expressive, denoting one and the same concept. So, the idea of a pretty girl is worded by more than one hundred ways in slang (cookie, bird, cutie, sugar, etc). The word language has such slang equivalences: lingo, bafflegab, doublespeak, doubletalk, gobbledygookese and psychobabble [24, p.228]. The substandard status of slang words and phrases, through universal usage, can be raised to the standard colloquial: pal, crony, chum for friend, dough for money, beat it for go away and many more are examples of such a transition. Slang words as well as jargonisms and argots may change their meaning. Thus translator should take into account the time factor while he is in the process of finding the equivalent [2, p.255]. 1.3. Different Approaches towards the Classification of Slang Since the notion of slang is very extensive and embraces a huge amount of words and phrases it would be useful to classify it. Several attempts to classify slang have been made. V.O. Khomyakov, for instance, supports the idea of several other scholars that slang should be subdivided into two groups: 1. General slang 2. Special slang [10, p.38]. General slang includes figurative and expressive words and phrases with emotionally-evaluative connotations, which serve as synonyms to the words of the literary language.

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Special slang includes the so-called secret languages of a criminal world, jargons and various words and phrases belonging to any professional or social lexical system. In English lexicography these secret languages are called argot. Argot is a prearranged, secret language of declassed elements (paupers, vagrants, thieves, gangsters etc.) [10, p.43]. Eric Partridge supports this idea and states that argot is largely a secret language which has a number of terms for its own private use, but in its general structure and its everyday vocabulary it is a mixture of slang and colloquialisms. Taking into consideration that argot stands close to slang also being substandard, expressive and emotive, it is difficult to draw a distinction between these two elements. John Farmer suggests that limits and place of argot in the world of philology are well-defined. In the first place slang is universal, whilst argot is restricted in usage to certain classes of the community: thieves, vagrant men and their associates. Argot is frequently more enduring, its use continuing without variation of meaning for many generations [23, p.140]. One more colloquial language element which is similar to slang is rhyming argot. The traditional term for it is rhyming slang. It is also intentionally cryptic [10, p.49]. The rhymed form consists rarely of one, generally of two, sometimes of more than three words: bag with a sag a girl with unattractive shape; loose as a goose very loose indeed; Gypsys warning morning; Charley Howard coward; box of toys noise [23, p.276]. Apart from that there is a notion of Cockney slang. Cockney rhyming slang is not a language but a collection of phrases used by Cockneys and other Londoners. A true Cockney is someone born within the sound of Bow Bells (St Mary-le-Bow Church in Cheapside, London). However the term Cockney is now loosely applied to many born outside this area as long as they have a Cockney accent or a Cockney heritage. The Cockney accent is heard less often in Central London these days but is widely heard in the outer London boroughs, the London suburbs and all across South East England. Rhyming Slang phrases are derived from taking an expression which rhymes

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with a word and then using that expression instead of the word. For example the word look rhymes with butcher's hook. In many cases the rhyming word is omitted - so you will not find too many Londoners having a butchers hook at this site, but you might find a few having a butcher's. The next type of special slang is jargon. As well as argot jargon is a substandard, expressive language used by limited groups of people. Yet the difference between these two terms should be made clear. The main objective of argot is to make your language conspirational and incomprehensible for others. We cannot assimilate jargon with agreed code since it does not aim at secrecy. Jargon is terminology which is especially defined in relationship to a specific activity, profession or group. In other words, the term most often covers the language used by people who work in a particular area or who have common interest. It can develop as a kind of short-hand, to express ideas that are frequently discussed between members of a group, though it can also be developed deliberately using chosen terms. A standard term may be given a more precise or unique usage among practitioners of a field. In many cases this causes a barrier in communication with those not familiar with the language of the field. As an example, the conversation between British military pilots may be provided: The erk muttered that he wasnt carrying the can for anybody, that he wasnt Joe, that he couldnt care less about scrambled eggs, and that anyway he was browned off. It is difficult to understand the idea of their talk unless we know the meaning of the highlighted elements: erk a new R.A.F. (Royal Air Force) recruit; to carry the can to accept the blame; Joe any officer from Group Captain upwards; to be browned off to be depressed, disgusted. And also: kite an airplane; the gen information, instructions; Groupy a Group Captain [10, p.53].

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R.I. Rosina suggests that slang units are always new word-formations, which appeared on the basis of the words of the literary language [9, p.37]. Thus the researcher classified slang into two groups. The first one includes words, the outer form of which was changed, thus differing from its initial form, but the inner form (the meaning) of which was preserved. Words, where the outer form remains the same, but the meaning is changed belong to the second group of slang units. V.A. Khomyakov further subdivides slang units based on the same idea. His classification includes formally-motivated slang units and unmotivated [11, p.96]. Formally-motivated slang units appeared as a result of contamination of the outer form of the words. Unmotivated slang units are words and phrases, the outer form of which coincides with those of the literary standard, but where one can trace metaphoric, metonymic and other semantic shifts. Robert Chapman introduced the notions of primary and secondary slang [15, p.16]. Primary slang is the pristine speech of subculture members, so very natural to its speakers that it seems they might be mute without it. Of course they would not be, since we know that slang is by definition always an alternative idiom, to be chosen rather than required. Much of teenage talk, and the speech of urban street gangs, would be examples of primary slang. Secondary slang is chosen not so much to fix one in a group as to express ones attitudes and resourcefulness by pretending to be a member of a street gang, or a criminal, or a gambler, or a drug user, or a professional football player, and so forth. It is used to express ones contempt, superiority, and cleverness by borrowing someone elses verbal dress. Secondary slang is a matter of stylistic choice rather than true identification [15, p.13]. 1.4. The Reasons for the Usage of Slang Eric Partridge was the greatest collector of slang and the annus mirabilis of slang proved to be 1937, the year of publication of the first edition of his Dictionary of Slang

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and Unconventional English. According to British lexicographer people use slang for any of at least fifteen reasons:
1.

As an exercise either in wit and ingenuity or in humor (the motive behind this is usually self-display or snobbishness, emulation or responsiveness, delight in virtuosity). In sheer high spirits, by the young in heart as well as by the young in years; just for the fun of the thing; in playfulness or waggishness. To be different, to be novel. To be picturesque (either positively or negatively (as in the wish to avoid insipidity). To be unmistakably arresting, even startling. To escape from clichs, or to be brief and concise. To lessen the sting of, or on the other hand to give additional point to, a refusal, a rejection, a recantation. To reduce, perhaps also to disperse, the solemnity, the pomposity, the excessive seriousness of a conversation (or of a piece of writing). soften the tragedy, to lighten or to prettify the inevitability of death or

2.

3. 4.

5. 6.

7. To enrich the language.

8.

9.

10. To

madness, or to mask the ugliness or the pity of profound turpitude (e.g. treachery, ingratitude); and/or thus to enable the speaker or his auditor or both to endure, to carry on.
11. To

speak or write to an inferior, or to amuse a superior public; or merely to be on a ease of social intercourse (not to be confused or merged with the preceding). show that one belong to a certain school, trade, or profession, artistic or be secret not understood by those around one (children, students, lovers,

colloquial level with either ones audience or ones subject matter.

12. For 13. To 14. To

induce either friendliness or intimacy of a deep or a durable kind.

intellectual set, or social class; to establish contact.

15. To

members of political secret societies, and criminals in or out of prison, innocent persons in prison, are the chief exponents) [23, p.42].

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Chapter II. Linguistic and Stylistic Analysis of Slang Units on the Basis of Episodes found in the script
The characters speech in the TV show Buffy the vampire slayer proved to be highly informal and abound in slang and colloquial words of different types. It is fresh, easy to understand and contemporary. The show is based on the student life of teenagers, their relationships with each other etc. Since the usage of slang is peculiar to young people many examples of these language elements were identified in the script. Example 1 Willow: Two Veruca shows in two nights. Are you sure you wanna share your groupie? [25, p.7]. The Robert Chapmans Dictionary of Slang provides two definitions of the word groupie: 1. A young woman who seeks to share the glamour of famous persons, esp. rock musicians, by offering help and sexual favours; 2. An ardent (intensely enthusiastic, eager) devotee and votary. The synonym to the word fan; usually refers to Hollywoods young trendies. As can be seen from above provided definitions the slang word groupie has rather negative meaning denoting the person who lacks self-confidence or devotes herself to another person too much. The neutral word for such notion is fan. The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English gives the following definition of this word: Fan someone who likes a particular sport or performing art very much, or who admires a famous person [21, p.569]. If to compare the slang unit and its neutral equivalent it will become obvious that the latter is less expressive and no negative meaning is implied in it. Moreover it acquires even more positive meaning since there is a widely-held opinion that the person interested in sports and arts cannot possess negative features. Thus the character used this particular word to emphasize the negative meaning of the notion. A lot of interesting slang equivalences for the word fan can be found in the Thesaurus of Slang:

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Wannabee, skeezer (denoting a person who is interested in hip-hop), junkie, buff, bug, freak, crazies, nut, trendoid, punker (denoting a person, who likes punk rock), B-boy, B-girl (both refer to people enjoying rap music), head banger (heavy metal), frenzie, crank, culture-vulture, fiend, flip, hound, rooter, booster, alligator, gate, gator, cat, help cat, prophet, stargazer, blue farouq, flunky, stooge, eager beaver, demon, filbert etc [24, p.156]. Example 2 Xander: And you know I've always had a problem calculating the tip and you guys being so dapper and brain, maybe you can help me out. [25, p.8]. According to the Longman dictionary the denotative meaning of the word brain is the organ inside the head that controls how you think, feel, and move [21, p.173]. Therefore it is obvious that all derivatives and collocations with the word brain will inevitably imply the persons ability to think, make some conclusions or being intelligent and knowledgeable in some particular sphere. The dictionary of slang suggests that brain is an intelligent person, intellectual, good scholar. Since in the given example the word brain is used in the form of adjective it can be assumed that the speaker wants to emphasize some particular abilities and skills of the person he refers to. The word clever, which is the neutral equivalent for the slang word brain, definitely will not serve the aim of the speaker. Some kind of jealousy can be found in Xanders words. For a person, possessing no particular skills in mathematics it turned out to be extremely difficult to calculate big numbers. Thus those people who actually can do such things are considered by Xander to be outstanding intellectuals. The word clever would not produce such vivid effect. Rather interesting collocations with the word brain are given in the dictionary of slang: brain bucket a steel helmet; brain drain the loss of useful educated persons, especially professionals, from a place because they can find better conditions elsewhere; brain-fade stuporous boredom; brain one the most elementary intelligence; a minimum of sagacity;

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not have brain one to be very stupid; brain-picker a person who explicit the creative notions of others; not have brains enough to come in out of the rain to be lacking the most elementary intelligence. The Thesaurus of slang suggests substitution of neutral clever by such slang equivalents: Savvy, slick, fly, crack, crackerjack, brain, brainy, egghead, got the smarts, have a head on ones shoulder, have ones head screwed on right, have savvy, have the smarts, nobodys fool, no dummy, no dumbbell, not born yesterday, not so dumb, on the ball, sharp, sharp as a tack, smart as a whip, cute, hot tamale, neat, nifty, foxy, crazy like a fox, phenom etc. [24, p. 68]. Example 3: Hey, are you alright in there, buddy? [25, p.8] According to the dictionary of slang the word buddy has three meanings:
1.

A diminutive form of the word bud, which means either a friend or a fellow or very close friend. The synonyms are guy and pal respectively. A mans closest male friend. During World War 1 this term took on a particularly sentimental value. A males partner in work or sport (probably influenced by brother). These three meanings slightly differ from each other. Still they have something in

2.

3.

common. First of all, buddy is someone who is rather close to you, someone particularly dear. Secondly, the gender is specified it is male. While speaking about bosom friends only pleasant feelings are immediately evoked in our mind. Thus the Longman dictionary defines friend as someone who you know and like very much and enjoy spending time with [21, p.645]. According to the context the person who these words refer to is not the speakers close friend. Moreover he does not even know him. In this case the speaker tries to convince another person of sharing his problems with him. Xander wants to help but first of all he needs to make the person trust him. Therefore he uses the word buddy which aims to establish a social contact between the speakers.

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The following slang equivalences for the word friend are given in the dictionary of slang: Amigo, brother, brah, bra, bro, sister, homes, homies, homeslice, dog, G, bosom buddy, buddyroo, biscuit, road dog, matie, pal, sidekick, Billy, captain etc. [24, p.173]. Example 4: Xander: Where the hell is Giles? [25, p.10] The word hell is very wide-spread slang unit which forms a huge amount of collocations and phrases. Longman dictionary provides the following definitions of the word hell:
1.

The place where the souls of bad people are believed to be punished after death, especially in the Christian and Muslim religions. A place or situation in which people suffer very much, either physically or emotionally. A situation, experience, or place that is very unpleasant [21, p.759]. The word has rather long history. According to the etymological dictionary

2.

3.

in the Old English the word hell, helle meant the nether world, abode of the dead or infernal regions. In Old Norse language this word had familiar meaning denoting the underworld. Since at least 1374 it has been used figuratively for any bad experience. As an expression of disgust, etc. it first appeared in 1678. As may be seen from above provided explanations the main meaning of the word hell is something very unpleasant and disgusting. Thus, according to Robert Chapmans Dictionary of Slang the word hell has three meanings:
1. 2. 3.

An exclamation of disgust, regret, emphasis, etc. Strong rebuke or punishment. A bad experience [16, p.210]. Eric Partridge agrees with these definitions suggesting that the word hell is widely

used in oaths and to reinforce imprecations and questions (often rhetorical) of impatience and irritation.

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It can be clearly seen from the example taken from the script that the speaker is very much irritated. Most probably Xander has some urgent news or wants to discuss something very important with Giles, but he cannot find him. The word hell is very suitable for this case since it achieved its main target and helped to understand the speakers feelings. As it was already mentioned the word hell can be found in various collocations and phrases: blue hell an extremely nasty and trying situation; to catch hell to be severely rebuked or punished or to be severely damaged or injured [16, p.63]; come hell or high water no matter what happens, in any event [16, p.78]; excuse me all to hell I apologize. Most often sound ironically, when one thinks an accusation has been undeserved or too strong [16, p.126]; for the hell of it for no definite or usefull reason, for fun, casually [16, p.146]; give someone hell to rebuke or punish severely [16, p.169]; like a bat out of hell very rapidly; like hell in an extravagant way; very forcefully [16, p.266]; play hell with something damage or destroy [16, p.336]. Example 5: Jack: Neat, huh? My brother-in-law is a warlock. He showed me how to do it. [25, p.8] Longman Dictionary provides us with the following definitions of the word neat:
1. 2. 3.

Tidy and carefully arranged. Someone who is neat likes to keep things tidy. Something that is neat is small and attractive [21, p.1097]. While analyzing these definitions some positive images emerge in our mind. No

negative meaning is implied. Eric Partridges dictionary suggests that neat is something pleasant, something very good. According to the scholar the word was found as early as 1808. Nowadays it is used mostly by teenagers. Robert Chapman yet was more expressive stating that neat is something excellent and wonderful [16, p.296].

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The thesaurus of slang provides more than two hundred slang equivalents to the neutral word excellent: Sweet, tasty, ace, twitchin, def, rad, fly, bomb, filthy, mint, cherry, deffest, dope, fresh, zero cool, gilt-edged, nose cone, the cats whiskers, etc. [24, p.146]. Example 6: Cordelia: Well, Xander, I could dress more like you, but, (in mock sympathy) oh, my father has a job. Xander: So, life beyond high school. Anyone, please... chime in! [13] According to the Longman dictionary the word chime has the following meanings:
1.

If a bell or clock chimes, it makes a ringing sound, especially to tell you what time is. To be the same as something else or to have the same effect [21, p.257]. To interrupt and intrude ones counsel. To offer comment [16, p. 68].

2.

Robert Chapmans dictionary yet provides such definitions for the phrase chime in:
1. 2.

If to compare the definitions of the neutral word chime and slang phrase chime in the obvious correlation will appear between them. The ringing sound of the clock, for instance, very often irritates and bothers us since we cannot control it as well as a person who interrupts you while you are talking to someone else. Thus the phrase chime in acquires quite a negative meaning. It can be clearly seen in the example from the script. Xander was talking to his friend Oz and suddenly Cordelia interrupted him. His invitation please chime in has rather ironical meaning in the context. Example 7: Jack: you know I've been taking abuse from snot nosed kids for twenty years. They're always coming in here with their snotty attitude, drinking their fruity little micro brews and spouting out some philosophy like it means a damn thing. [25, p.8]. Out of this speech we can understand that the speaker is rather irritated. Such effect was produced by slang units the main task of which (as was discussed in the previous chapter) is to make your speech colorful and expressive.

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Eric Partridge suggests that snot nose is an arrogant person, a snob [22, p.600]. The Longman dictionary provides the following definition of the word snot: Snot an impolite word for the thick liquid produced in ones nose [21, p.1567]. Thus Jack used the phrase snot nosed kids to refer to the people who claim to be highly intelligent but in fact do not possess any particular knowledge or have not gained enough experience yet. Being the derivative from the word snot the adjective snotty possesses a similar meaning describing a person who is conceited, arrogant or aloof [22, p.600]. The word damn is one of the most widely-used slang units. Therefore Eric Partridge provides us with the following definitions: Damn something of little or no worth. It is usually used in phrases like not worth a damn, not care a damn or not give a damn. There is a strongly fought historical argument that this derives from dam (an Indian coin of little value). As an adjective damn or damn is used for implying anything ranging from distance to hate for whoever or whatever is so described. Very often damn is an inflexion used as intensifier [22, p. 185]. There are many interesting collocations with damn: Damn! Damn it! used for registering annoyance or irritation. Damn all nothing. Damn and bastardly! used as a mild oath. Damn and blast the last position in the race. An example of rhyming slang. Damn and blast! used for expressing anger or frustration. Damned tooting used for expressing emphatic agreement. Damn fool or damfool foolish or silly. Damn skippy absolutely without a doubt; an intensive affirmative. Damn well certainly, assuredly, very much. Example 8: Buffy: Faith, wait. Look, I know this new guy's a dork, but... Well, I have nothing to follow that. He's pretty much just a dork [25, p.15].

22

The Longman dictionary suggests that dork is someone who you think is or looks stupid [21, p.486]. With Eric Partridges dictionary of slang the word dork has slightly different meaning denoting a person who is socially inept, unfashionable and harmless [22, p. 214]. According to Robert Chapman the word dork acquires even more offensive meaning referring to a despicable person, while the adjective dorky describes a person as stupid and awkward [16, p.111]. The aim of the speaker was to offend a person she referred to and the slang word dork fulfilled this task completely. The thesaurus of slang gives more than three hundred slang equivalents for the word stupid. Among the most interesting are: Exceptional, dorf, droid, chili bowl, birdie, yo-yo, nobody home, Barbie and Ken, troll, pod people, dodo, dummy, four-letter man (dumb), dye-job, Gumbeyhead, oofus, doofus, helium head, buckethead, low-walt bulb, minus some buttons, one sandwich short of the picnic, goop, stoop, stupe, loogan, schlump, stiff [24, p.383]. Example 9: Buffy: Oh, that would be tragic, taking the fun out of slaying, stabbing, and beheading. Faith: Oh, like you don't dig it! [25, p.16] According to Robert Chapman the verb dig has the following meanings: 1. To study very diligently; exert oneself; 2. To interrogate or inquire vigorously; 3. To understand, comprehend;
4.

To like, admire, prefer [16, p.101].

After analyzing the context it becomes understandable that the fourth meaning is actualized here. The phrase to dig it possesses more expressive meaning than like or enjoy. Therefore the speaker opted for this particular choice. Some more examples of phrases which contain the word dig: Dig catch the cool senses;

23

Take a dig at someone to make an irritating or contemptuous comment [16, p. 440]. Since in the given context the word to dig means to enjoy slang equivalents provided below denote the same notion: Groove on, have a ball, ball, funke, grok, get some grins, get it on, be big on, get off on, get high on, get naked (not necessarily sexual), flip, flip for, flip over, freak out on, get a charge out of, get a bang out of, get ones rocks off, get ones cookies, drop the bomb, just for kicks, just for laughs, knock oneself out, hit the high spot. As can be seen from above provided examples the aim of the slang units is either to make ones speech colourful and expressive or to offend somebody. The usage of slang appeals to the young since language is considered to be a mean of expressing ones individuality. Therefore, by analyzing the slang units used by some particular character it becomes possible to create some image, to understand what kind of person he or she is.

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Conclusions
In the present research paper an attempt was made to analyze the informal language used by characters in the TV Show Buffy the Vampire Slayer. The analysis was made on the basis of two episodes of the show. The present research is based on forty examples of the usage of slang units which were found in the script and nine of them were analyzed in the chapter two. In the course of research were precisely discussed the notion of slang, principles of its classification and the reasons for its usage. Examples of the most interesting slang units from the point of view of etymology and stylistics were provided. On the grounds of the analysis of the slang units usage in the TV show Buffy the Vampire Slayer the following conclusions can be drawn:

The informal layer of language is considered to be the means of conveying expressiveness. It is used to make the characters speech more emotive and stylistically coloured.

To understand the meaning and the reason for the usage of any particular slang unit one should take into consideration the cultural peculiarities of the bearers of language he is dealing with. Nowadays slang is not frowned upon and is not considered to be the dustbin language any longer and even vice verse is widely used not only in oral speech but in mass media and in the TV shows in particular.

List of References

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25 2.

. . / . ., . . .: , 1980. 328 . . . / . . // . 1956. - 6. . 107-114. . . / . . // - . .: , 1980. .5-13. . . / . . // . 1962. - 4. . 102-112. . . : . . . . / . . . .: , 2001. 208. . . . .

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/ . . . , 2003. 298.
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/ . . // . , 1999. - 111. . 109-114.

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. . 20 . / . . // , 1977. - 14. . 36-45. . . / . . . : . . .. -., 1971. 103. . . , / . . // , 1992. - 3. . 94-103. . . : / . . // . . . .. , 1969. . 65-79. . . / . . . .: . ., 1963. 216 . Burchfield R. The English Language / R. Burchfield. New York, 1985. 320p. Chapman R. L. Preface / R. L. Chapman. Preface to American Slang. Harper Collins Publishers, 1987. - P. 5-17.

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26 16.

Chapman R. L. American Slang / R. L. Chapman. Harper Collins Publishers, 1987. 592p.

17.Eble C. Slang and Sociability: in-group language among college students / C. Eble. Chapell Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1996. 228p. 18. Galperin I.R. Stylistics / I.R. Galperin. M.: Higher School, 1977. 332p.
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Kukharenko V. A. A Book of Practice in Stylistics / V. A. Kukharenko. Vinnytsja: Nova Knyha Publishment, 2000. 160 . Historical Dictionary of American Slang [Edit. by J. Sheidlower]. New York: Random House, 1994. Vol. 1 (A-G). 1006 p. New York: Random House, 1997. Vol.2 (H-O). 736 p. .

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21. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. Pearson ESL, 2003. 1950p.

22. Partridge

E. A Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English Colloquialisms and

Catch Phrases, Fossilized Jokes and Puns, General Nicknames, Vulgarisms and such Americanisms as have been naturalized / [Edit. by Paul Beale]. London and New York, 1989. 1400p. 23. Partridge E. Slang To-Day and Yesterday / E. Partridge. New York: The Macmillan, 1934. 476p.
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The Thesaurus of Slang / [Edit. by E. Lewin, A. Lewin]. Facts on File Inc., 1988. - 448p.
25.

Script to Buffy the Vampire Slayer. Two episodes: Beer is Bad and

Bad Girls.