AND REMEDIAL CEMENTING PRIIvTARY

AND REMEDIAL CEMENTING PRIIVIARY

TABLEOFCONTENTS
PAGE I.

u.

INTRODUCTION CEMENT CI{EMISTRY AND TESTING AND RESULTINGCOMPOUNDS A. N,IANUFACTURING B. API CEMENTCI-ASSES C. SETTINGOF CEMENT D. CEMENT TESTING E. CEMENTSLURRYDESIGN

1 I
)

3
8 20 3l 31 31 32 36
M 56

m.

PRIMARY CEMENTING A. B. C. D. INTRODUCTION FUNCTIONS SUBSUMACE EQUIPMENT SURFACECEMENTINGEQI.IIPMENT TO CEMENTINGPROCEDURES E. PRIIVIARY ENI{ANCE SUCCESS F. POSTJOBCONSIDERATIONS OPERATIONS G. SPECI,AL H. CEMENTEVALUATION I. ANNUI-AR GAS FLOW IflTIGATION

56 63 66 72 73 86 99 103

IV.

REMEDIAL CEMENTING A. PLUG CEMENTING CEMENTING B. SQIJEEZE

LIST OF REFERENCES APPENDD(A

PRMARY AND REMEDIAL CEMENTTNG

I.

INTRODUCTION job filter slurryand/orcement of The purpose anoil or gaswell cement is to placecement locationdownhole.After beingplaced,thecementsetschemically cakein a predetemrined and strength the of in this of by a process hydration; results the development mechanical theseoperationsare performed of establishment a hydraulic seal. In almostall instances cementin water. This coursewill coverthe formulationof using a slurry of Ponland-type for andtechniques the effectiveuseof thesetypeslurries.

II.

CEMENT CHEMISTRYAND'IESTING A. Comlnunds and Manufacturing Resulting using materialsand methodssimilar to PortlandCementsare still manufactured rock (CaCOs by thosedeveloped JosephAspdin in 1824. Groundcalcareous along with some rock (aluminosilicatesource), source)andgroundargillaceous iron ore, are burnedin a kiln at high temperailre. The resultingclinker is then is with gypsumto form Portlandcement. This process depictedin interground Figure 1 after Reference1**. Resultingfrom this operationis a mixture of as oxidccompounds shownin TableI. anhydrous is A list of rcferences foundat theendof thissection. Figure I Cement of Manufacture Portland (AfterReference 1)

TABLE I COMPOSMON OF TYPICAL PORTI-ANDCEMENT Approximate Concentration 50Vo 257o l0Vo l0Vo SVo
Abbreviated

Comoound

Formula 3 CaO.SiO2 2 CaO.SiO2 3 CaOAl2O3 4 CaO.AlzC:.FezQ

Desienation CIS CzS

TricatciumSilicate silicate B -dicatcium Tricalcit'maluminate aluminoferrite Tetracalcium Otheroxides

clA
C4AF

in development the for which irccounts early-timestrength component C3Sis a fast-rcacting setcemenl for that is responsible the long term strengthand C2Sis a slowerreactingcomponent durabiliryin the setcemenl and in its hydratedform is sensitiveto sulfate C3A is the fastestreactingcomponent, waters. on very little exotherm setting. An importantrole C4AFis not highly reactiveanddevelops of is playedby this component to controlthe concentration C3A in the final product. By incorporatingmoreiron ore (FezQ) in the kiln fee4 the productionof C4AFis favoredat of theexpense ClA. B. Classes API Cement A P IS p e ci fi ca ti o n l0( Refer ence2) liss*( A,B,c,D,E,F,G, For if D, H andJ). Of these, E, F, andJ arevery seldom, ever,encountered. oii andgaswell applications, 10 in rcquircments) API Specification that from Table2.1 (cheinical It canbe seen G of with regardto composition Class and is theAPI specification morercstrictive in H cementsthan for ClassA. Also, Table 2.2 (Physical Requirements)

Specification 10 indicatesthat the performancetestsfor API ClassG and H cements are conducted at higher temperaruresthan for Class A, and ffi

ClassG andH are only asOrdinaryType (O) whercas is ClassA cement available TYPE (MSR) or High Sulfate-Resistant availableas ModerateSulfate-Resistant Type (HSR). From Table2.L, it can be seenthat ClassA (O), MSR and HSR q'pesdiffer in that thc C3A contentof ClassA (O) is uncontrolledandfor the other mal((HSR)' mar((MSR)or 3 percent is the t1ryes C3Acontent limited to 8 percent ion Actually, thc dclcteriouscffect of thc dissolvedSO4-z on hydratedC3A is most range;it hasvirnrally no effect at 100in pronounced the 80-100'F temperature the in 180'F and no effect above180' F. Therefore, mostoil-field applications, not on is an choicebenveen O, MSR,or HSR typeof cement based considerations, The higherthe of but of sulfateattack, on costandreactivity,i.e.,ease retardation. of concentration C:A, thegrcatcrthercactiviry.

c.

of Settine C-ment l. HydrationReactions ratio,approximately slurrymixedat thecorrectwaterto cement In a cement nro-thirds of the total wateris requiredto wet the cementgrains,andreact with thecementto forrr an inarlocking hydratestructurc.The development of thc hydratestnrcnrreis shownby a scanningelectronmicrographas 3). Figrrrc2 (Refernce On filtering a cementslurry, it is this i one-thirdof mix waterthat is lost to the formation,i.e., during a squeeze cylinder (doing a fluid loss testin the job in the field, or to the graduate laboratory).The othernvo-thirdsof the mix waterremainsin the filter cake hydratestnrctue andasa smailamount of asoneof components thecement that of interstitial water. It is for this reason Useof thecorrcctwaterto solids ratio is a very importantslurry designparameter.The useof greaterthan free water, solids' designamountsof mix water will result in excessive in settlingandinferior setproperties thecement.ffi

2 Figure

PASTES OF PORTLAT{D CE}IENT appcrr b scenning .lcctroo microgrephr madc et vrriorr stegcl ol hydndoq tbrt i$ at vriour timcr aftcr nrtct r.r mircd wltb thr ccDG!! Aftcr two hour: (/) tbc

initirl gcl cortingl erc visiblc around thc ccmcnt grains' After a mc'rA rr- cvidcnt' as rrc largc Phtalike csysbls of cdc'-'r (Z) ttifit.ift Dcteil of srnc samplc (J) shows thc iotcrlocking fibars' iydrorida

A chemical equation can be used to depict the complete hydration of tricalcium silicate(Ref4):

+ 3Ca(OH)z + 2 (3CaO.SiOd 6 H2O= 3 CaO.2SiO2.3H2O cambe wfitten for theothercementcomponents Simitarchemicalequations pointsto be madefrom a consideration shownin TableI. Thereareseveral of the aboveequation. as and strength impermeability, a result sets,i.e. develops Cement "drying out" asit is or not of hydration, as a resultof dehydration, stated. sometimes As indicatedby the abovechemicalequation,Ca(OH)zis a by of reaction. Because this,cement productof thecementhydration slurry, cementfiltrate, and the set cementare all alkaline(pH of a creates 12.U12.4). The high pH of the primary cementsheath passive film on the steelcasing,i.e. protectsit from corrosion. Another byproductof the hydrationreaction (not shown by the aboveequation)is heat"or to stateit differently the hydrationof 4 cementis exothermic. Reference (on p.29$ gives the heat of hydrationof a neatcementmixed with 40Vowater (by weight of cementor bwc) as 61 caVgram.Thc effect of this exothermon the is of temperature a well cement shownby Figurc 3.

on are temperanresurveys based this cementproperty. It is Cement-top maximum is attainedat some evident from Figure 3 that the temperature jobs theoptimum for particulartime aftercementing; mostprimary cement surveyis Gl2 hoursafter bumpingthe tempranr time to run a cement-top temperanre surYeysee Figure 4; the plug. For a typical cement-toP gradientis shownasa dottedline. geothemral undisturbed
)

Area(grind) hessureandSurface Effectsof Temperaturc.

Temperature: The rate of most chemical reactions is acceleratedby an increasein temperature;this general rule also applies to thc hydration of

Figurc3

s hicirt oi hr drlrtion Itrr t'lur dillcrunt 11 ll5

'rcll

d e o r h+ o of t 1 .( 1 ) .

Figure4 SurveyAfter Cementing TypicalTemperature

90'F

loooF 11dF

1200F

P R O B A B L EC E M E N T T O P

13 0 0 '

14 0 0 '

of cement. A measure the rate of reactionof cementwith water is the thickeningtime of thecementslurry. The thickeningtime of a cementslurry slurrywill remainsufficiently is definedasthelengthof time thata cement fluid to be pumped,when testedunder simulateddownholeconditions. in Reduction thickeningtime is indicativeof a fasterreactionrate. The data in time,i.e.,an acceleration rate in of Figure5 showa reduction thickening for in of reaction,with increases temperanrre four differentcementslurries. Pressure: Increasesin confining pressurealso have the effect of the the accelerating rateof the hydrationrcactionanddecreasing thickening time. This effect is illustratedfor a cementslurry testedat a constant (200' F) by thedataof Figure6. temperature SurfaeArea: A cementthat is gfoundmore finely hasrelatively greater has arcaandtherefore morc areaavailablefor thehydrationreaction. sgrface The effect of grind is illustratedby the data of Figure 7, lI|tFF 5. which was takenfrom Reference Predictably,as the finenessof the (shownas greatersurfaceiuea per unit of weight), the cementincreased to time wasobserved decrease. thickening D. Testing Cernent the by is well application designed fint considering A cement slgrryfor anyoiVgas purposes the cementjob and thc environmentinto which the slurry will be of waterto usingthe specified in placed. A cement slurry is prepared the laboratory solidsratio and bestguessas to requiredadditivestype and concentration; the its to slurry is then tesred determine suitabilityfor the intendedapplication,and are in changes composition made,if needed.In other words,cementtestingis a of key pan of the iterativeprocess slurry design. Also, cementof the sameAPI and btween differentmanufacnrrers in Classwill showsomedifferences properties frequent runufacnrrcc this variationnecessitates from thesame lot to lot differcnces well cementtestingis of testing. The bestsinglesource informationconcerning whichfollow the testshavingparticularrelevance API Spec10. In the paragraphs are slurries discussed of to thedesign field cernenting

Figure5 Time of Various on Effect of Temperaturc Thickening hessure(1) at API Cements Ampspheric

200 180
c t A s s0
ctMtilT

crAss t \

(^1
\

Mt III

160

140 c t A s sG clMtilT

f
trJ

izo
100
\

\ )

5
UJ

z, t!
F

9 8 0

cr.Ass G

C M t t l T + 2 X C o C

60 40

>
6 8 1 O

THICKENING TIME, HOURS

Figure6 on Effect of Pressure Pumpabilityof Cement. (Cement API Class with 0.3 Percent Retardeq H Temperature200'F) (1) Circulating Bottom-Hole

500

Q't :!

100

z =
q

=
z,

100

200

= ::
F

100

0 -

5000

10.000

15,000

2o.0oo

25.000

to.ooo

35.000

pT P R E S S U R E ,i

10

Figure7 of LinearRegrcssion ThickeningTime andBlaine A, for Fineness Class G and11gsmsnls(5)

160 140
,7

; i: o
'o

120 100

1 Supplier o - S u p p l i e2 r r f = S u p p l i e3 t - SupplierOther s , LeastSquares

A =

! 8 0
rn -c o a 60 40 N R2

se Y'
180

24 0 .9 2 8 .9 4 294.0 - 0.72x 220 240 260

I / A / A A

20 200 280 300 320 340 360 380 ( B l aineFineness mz/kg)

\-

1 l

l.

6 of of Determination FreeWaterContent Slurry- Section of API Spec10 but G test This is a specificuion for Class andH cements, it is alsoaneasily perforrred test that is very useful for slurry designpurposes. This test of in provides datapoints:theslurryconsistency ABc after2Aminutes trvo pressure at consistometer 80'F, andthevolume stirringin an atmospheric of free water occurringafter the slurry standsquiescentfor two hours. consistency of are slurries a 20-minute criteriafor mostcementing Suitable 1l ABc + 2 ABc andfrec water< 2.5ml.

2.

M OlpratingFreeWaterTest- Aplrendix of API Spec10 it applications is requiredthat thecementslurry For somecasingcementing are developlitde or no freewater. Two suchcritical applications deviated gas-bearing intervals. The preferredfree wells and wells that penetrate in watertestfor suchwells is the onedescribed AppendixM of Spec.10. and This testinvolvesplacingthe slurryin a FITAIPconsistometer raising to the slurry temperature simulatedbottom hole circulating temperature (BHP) accordingto an (BHCT) and simulatedbottom hole pressure (TableE.6,8.7, or E.8A in Spec.10). time schedule thickening appropnate the conditionsareattained, slurry and After ma:rimum temperature pressure to so is allowedto cool to 194'F (90' C), if necessary, it canbe transfened for cylinderandallowedto standquiescent two hoursat room a graduated pressure.The volumeof free wateris then and temperaturc atmosphcric measurcd.

3.

E 8 TimeTests Section andAppendix of API Spec10 Thickening dataas to the lengthof time a cementwill Thickeningtime testsproduce remain suffrciently fluid to be pumped,when tested under simulated and the downholeconditions. API Specl0 describes equipment procedures for performing thickening time tests and, also provides to schedules be followed during the thickening time/pressure/tempetanue in are of time tcsts.Theapplications thevarioustestschedules summarized Tabletr bclow:

t2

TABLEtr TIME SCHEDULES API THICKENING

in Pages Spec10,3rdEd 27-29 52-57 58-61 62-& 65-70

Application Testing Specification CasingCementing LinerCe,menting Cementing** Squeeze Squeeze Hesitation **

l0 in Table Spec. 8.3 E.6 8.7 E.8A E.8B

forplug-backcementing. also,to be used

well simulationtest(TableE.6 or or A casing-cementing liner-cementing on E.7 in Spec10) for a given well is selected the basisof the well depth gradient(as 'F/100 feet of gradient. The temperanrre and the temperature on "bottomhole statictemperature" depthor'(/100 m depth)is based a depth(MD) (BHST)asdescribed page5l of Spcc10,andthemeasured on of the well. In somehighly deviatedwells the resultingtemperature gradientwill be lower than any found in Table 8.6 or E.7 (below 0.9" will time schedule berequired.Generally, F/100)anda customthickening they are predictiveof how are the API thickeningtime schedules accurate; will slunieswill performin mostwells. The API thickeningtime schedules not be as suited to wells with an unusualcircumstance. Examplesof "unusual includeoffshorewells with long risers(in water circumstances" permafrost, high angle wells depths> 500 feet), wells that penetrate gradients outsidetherangeof (discussed above)andwells with temperanne 'F/100feet). Suchwells will requirecustom 8.6 Tables and8.7 (0.9-1.9 can the thickeningtime schedules; input for suchschedules be temperanre simulations. and/orcomputer mcas'urcments The design thickeningtime requiredfor a field slurry is given by the following word equation: job time** + anticipated time + safetyfactor time = surface thickening ** the cementstarts reactingassoonasit is mixed

13

job jobs is 50Vo the anticipated of Usualsafetyfactorfor casingcementing may dictatethe needfor moreor lesssafetyfactor. time; local experience One hundredpercentis commonly used as a safety factor for liner do slurriesfor cementplug operations not operations.Cement cementing of the require a large safetyfactor because placement a cementplug is straightforwardand there are reasons(see Chapter IV-A) why long thickening times are undesirable. Longer- time safety factors are cementingfor two reasons. StQrE appropriatefor squeeze c t !t I lt ll! tlll l! tlJlfl to . Therearepotentialhazards packer, thejob andto thewell, i.e., stickingtheworkstringor a retrievable set which couldresultfrom premature of the cement. This is palticularly reasons, leastonehour For at tnrein thecaseof a circulationsqueeze. these jobs of safetyfactorshouldbeusedwith mostsqueeze andasmuchasfwo illll I l' hoursfor circulationsqueezes. 4. F Fluid Inss Test- Appendix of API Sgec10 of The API fluid loss testprovidesa measure the rate at which a cement a slurry losesfiltrate (thefluidity water)whenthe slurry is placedagainst (dp) (325meshscreen) a differentialpressure is and pcrmeable membrane imposed. This test indirectly gives an indication of rate and extent of filter cakebuild up. cement bottom at It hasbeenfound thatonly fluid losstestsconducted simulated (BHT) and a dp of 1000psi provideusefulinformation hole temperature of slurryin thewell. A comparison of the concerning behavior thecement 30-minuteAPI fluid loss values taken under conditionsof LTILP (80" F/100psi) or HT/HP (BI{T/1000psi) areshownin TableIII. -' :-' 'h ' ":-' ' '

t4

TABLE III FLUID LOSS HIGH TEMPERATURVHIGHPRESSURE oF SQUEEZECEMENTINGSLURRIES SIMULATED API BHCT DEGREESF} 159 186 2t3 242

RETARDER 30 MIN. API LTILP %O(BWC\ SCHEDULE 16 10.8

FLLIID LOSS (ml) HT/HP

4u
392 839 1080

t7 18
19

0.2 0.3
0.4

rl.2 7.4
6.8

API CLASSH CEMENT (BWO n-A 0.870 (BWW) NaCl 127o 4.8 GPSMD( WATER (Ref 6) Symposium, Cementing of From: Proceedings SPESqueeze March2,1976 Texas Corpus Christi,

It is obviousfrom thedataof TableIII that not only do theLTll-P fluid loss with datalack agrement themorcrealisticIITAIP data,but alsothetrendof thedatais notprcdictedby theLTILP dua of for Slurryfiltrationratecontrolis required theprimarycementing casing in and/or holes lessthanoneinch (1") of clearance in strings annulihaving having long intervalsof high permeabilityformation materialexposed. are ml havingHT/HPAPI fluid lossratesof 400-500 in 30 minutes Slurries operations. for adequate mostcasingcementing in are clearances encountered mostliner cementations. Very narrowannular mustbe carefully Because this, extentof cementfilter cakedeposition of controlledto preventannularblockage. 50-100ml API in 30 minutesis slunies. for acceptable mostlinercementing

15

cementingslurry to perform its intendedfunction, it is For a squeeze in necessary cementsolidsbedeposited the targetintervalasfilter cake. that is If the extentandrateof filter cakedeposition too low, theintervalwill not rcmain fiUed. If theextentandrateof filter cakedepositionis too high, the and entireintervalmay not be tneated the work string and/orpackermay be filter cake. The degreeof cementfluid loss control stuck by excessive job on requircddr:ringa squeeze depends severalfactors,which vary from placeto place. Theseinclude BHT, length of interval open,formation whethera packer annularclearance, work string/casing matrix permeabiliry, pressure. squeeze or typeof job (circulation other),andanticipated is used, The HTAIP fluid loss rates of most squeezecementing slurries are to adjusted t 100ml API in 30 minutes.

5.

D 7 Tests Section andApoendix of API Spec10 Suengrth Comprcssive 7 to according Section and strengths of For thedercrmination compressive of Appendix D of Spec 10, sarnples the cementslurry to be testedare to is pouredinto 2-inchcubemolds. The cement thencuredaccording the foundin TableD.1 in Spec schedule time/pressure/temperaturc appropriatc usingthe are cubes setcement brokenin compression of 10. The resulting 7.9 procedures by described paragraph (page18)of Spec10. testingmethod strength compressive non-destnrctive A recentlydevelopcd involvesthe useof a device,which is referredto as an Ulrasonic Cement Analyzer ruCA) (Ref 7). In the useof the UCA, 300 milliliters of the and are cementslurry to be tested pouredinto the UCA cell; temperature suchas to according a schedule sample prssure imposed thecement on arc thosefoundin TableD.l of Spec10. The nansittime of a sonicsignal strength and is throughthe sample continuouslymeasured thecompressive sofrwareof theUCA. At any time is displayed storedin the associated and history of the the softwaremay be queriedand the snengthdevelopment and on will bedisplayed an x-y plor The UCA is very convenient it sample of a canbe usedto produce largearnount data; it is particularlysuitedfor of and development measurement cement monitoringthe ratc of strength aansition time, i.e., time requiredfor cementto conveft from a liquid strength.The datafrom theUCA to suspension a solidhavingmeasurable that shouldbeusedwith theundentanding therearefactorswhich affectthe strength;two of panicular transit time other than compressive cement's

16

interestare cementdensity (if not 16 ppg or 120 pcf) and curing (if temperamre not 80' D. If knowledgeof the absolutevalue of the strengths strengthis needed,UCA compressive cement'scompressive (described the in strenglhs compressive shouldbe verifiedusingcrush-test for conditions thesame curedunderthe same paragraph) cement for above periodof time. (WOC) waiting-on+ement dataareusedto determine strength Compressive rcaction tirc, rnonior quality controlanddetecttheeffectof anydeleterious waters, acid containing i.e., may beexposed, SO-2+ to whichthe setcement the by gases BHT > 250'F. WOC time is determined measuring set or longertime intervalsand aftersuccessively strength compressive cement's then resumingoperationson the well when the compressivestrength job, drilling can be a reaches certainlevel. Following a primary cement strenghof 500 psi.(Ref1) a attains compressive whenthecement resumed pluggingoperation, drilling off the plug canbe initiated After a whipstock strengthof the cementis greaterthan formation when the compressive plug shouldbedrilled strength.Convenely,a lost circulation compressive formation compressive before the strengthof the cementplug exceeds job following a primarycement A strength. well shouldnot be perforated than2000psi.(Ref8) A is strength greater compressive until the cement at strength a fasterrate andto a compressive cementfrlter cakedevelops higher level than does the bulk slurry from which the filter cake was derived;this is shownby thedaa of TableIV. This property of cement(and cementfilter cake) is important in a job. The usual of consideration suitableWOC time following a squeeze of to recommendation wait for the development 1000psi compressive cementslurry is reasonable. in strength theparcntsqueeze

t7

TABLE IV OF STRENGTHS SETCEMENTS COMPARATTVE AND CEMENTFILTER CAKE (After Reference l) of Strength SetCement AfterCuring 24 Hours at Strength Cement of Filter CakeAfter Curing 8 Hours at

FluidLoss Agent (Percent) 0.0 0.8 1.0 t.2 0.0 0.8 1.0 t.2

800psi

9T.E
2,085 980 800 580 2,085 2,075 1,975 1,920

psi 3,000 140'E 4,545 3,515 3,440 3,525 4,545 4,000+ 4,000+ 4,000+

800psi

psi 3,000

9LE

r40'E

2,400 2,080 400

12,400 12,200 12,100

3,160 3,400 3,284

12,000+ 12,000+ 12,000+

The usc of compressivestrength data for quality control involves comparisonof the strengthdevelopedby a freld cement sampleto a data for a i.e., as found in API Spec 10, or to comparable standard, sample. cement laboratory-formulated strengthdata to observethe effectsof SO4-2 In the use of compressive half are identicalcementsamples prepared; containingwatersor acid gases, are cured in water and half :ue exposedto the potentially damaging are chemical. Both setsof samples cured underidenticalconditionsof are and tempenrture pressure.Samples periodicallyremoved,brokenin and compression, thercsultsarecompared. Typically,

18

(>250' F) on cement monitoring the effect of elevatedtemperatures (usual temperature cementis curedat the elevated strength, compressive are of strengths samples is curingpressurc 3000psi), andthe compressive snength indicatecompressive periodicallymeasured. If the samples sensitivity to high curing reductions with time, insteadof increases, is tmperatue indicated 6. Pressure of Rheolow.Calculation Cement of Measurement Cement H DroosandFlow Reeime- Aogendices andJ of API Spec10. The frictional prcssureattributableto a primary cementslurry in both the in plpe andannulus bc of importance detennininghydraulichorsepower can for necessary a given operation. Also, in somewells the total pressure The (includingfrictional) exefiedon sensidve intervalsmustbeconsidered. in flow regtmeis discussed theprimarycementing of significance cement of chapter this section. 7. K Testing ProcedursAopendix of API Spect0 Arctic Cementine snengthand for Procedures the testingof thickeningtime, compressive cycling behaviorof cementsintendedfor use in wells that freeze-thaw in pnetrate permafrost described AppendixK of API Spec10. are the 8. of Determination TestConditions tests API well cement paragraphs this manualseveral of In the prcceeding are described. The proper applicationof each of the tests(with the in exceptionof the free water test described Section6 of API Spec 10) The operating thickening (described Appendix E of API Spec 10) provide in time test schedules simulatedBHCTs for wells over a range of depths; selectionof the on schedulefor a given well depends knowledgeof static appropriate gradient('F/100 ft. of depth) for that well. Theseschedules temprature (AppendixE) are also useful for the API fluid-loss test (AppendixF), rheological properties (Appendix H), and operating free water test (AppendixM). The API operating snengthtests(Appendix compressive gradientto establish M) dependon a knowledgeof static temperature gradients be derived can BHST for testing. Statictemperature simulated

19

madeduring shut-inbottom-hole measurements from downholetemperanue and from known field or regionalgradients they pressure deterrrinations, to according the methodof from logging temperatures can be calculated DowdleandCobb(Ref.9) API thickeningtime test in As wasdiscussed the thickeningtime section, thickening to cannot applied all wells. For suchwells,custom be schedules or which can be basedon actual BHCT measurements time schedules computersimulationsarc needed. A commerciallyavailablecomputer in is program( "Welltemp"), which is suitedto this purpose, describd Reference10. This computerprogram,which runs on IBM PC or 5847San from Enertech ComputingCorporation, is compatible available Texas77057. Houston, FelipeRoad,Suite 1000, E. Design Slurr.v Cement the application, API class a As a fint stepin designing slurryfor a well cementing on is of cementis selected.The selection usuallybased the suitabilityof a given job, or perhaps the availabilityof an API cement on cementclassfor a particular of classin a locale. Then the type and amounts additivesto suit the slurry for a frs are oPeration chosen. sPecific

The trro most importantprincipalsto considerin effective slurry designare to (seepp. 18-19of for and correctwaterrequirements thecement additives observe for 11), Section230/Iof Reference anduserealisticwell conditions the pre-job are laboratory testing, The mostsignificantof thewell conditions temperatures. 1. Slurries NeatCement of are defined as suspensions but of Slurries this typearsimpleandeconomical, the utility of Jto neatcementslurriesis limited by the inability to control their properties of suit the needs a varietyof wells. Using slurry densityas an example, by thislackof conrol is illustrated thedataof TableV, below. .-tS

20

TABLE V AND DENSITIESOF NEAT SLURRIESOF WATER REQIJIREMENTS COMMONLY USEDAPI CEMENTS APICernent WaterRequirement (gps) gallonVsack Class SlurryDensity g) lbVgal(pp lbVft3(pc0 15.6

A B

c
G H

5.2 5.2 6.3 5.0 4.3

r5.6
14.8 15.8 16.4

tr6.7 r16.7
110.7

rt8.2 122.7

from the data in the abovetable that the densitiesof neat It is apparent and the rangeof slurriesareuniqueto the particularAPI classof cement, slurry densiticsattainableby API cementclassesis narrow. {ilF

material, particularly with regard to achieving a hydraulic seal. i=

this appliesto both neat comentslurriesand slurries. additive-containing 2. Additive-ContaininsSlurries are of on effects additives theproperties well cements given of The general from the available 1. on pp. 30 and 31 of Reference A listing of additives is companies givenasAppendixA to this section.In forn principalservice are the thc following chaptenof this section usesandeffectsof additives in described detail.

to As excePtions
the above, the concentrationof a water soluble additive used in relatively large arnounts,i.e. NaCl, is usually given as weight percent based on

2L

weight of water, and the concentrations of#

to It may be necessary lower cementslurry densityto reducedown-hole hydrostatic pressureand avoid fracturing the formation, or it may be to necessary raise cementslurry density to increasethe down-hole pressure avoida well controlproblem. Sincedensitycontrol to hydrostatic to utilizing neat cementsluries is insufficient,it is necessary utilize additives. Additives usedfor this purposefunction either by virtue of their specificgravity being significantlydifferent from that of cement(S.G.= ratio on 3.14)or by theeffectof theadditive thesolids/water of theresulting slurry. 3. Density Controlof Slurr.v The designdensitiesfor some slurriesare given in handbooks,i.e., the to 11, Reference but for many slurriesit is necessary calculate desired problem(seebelow)canbe illustrative of someof the density. An example as a ibove. Consider low densityslurry described a principlesdescribed slufry with 4Vo(by weightof 70-30(by bulk volume)ClassG - Pozzolan the and blend)bentonire, calculate slurrydensityand slurry yield (in ft3 of can slurry per sackof 70 - 30 dry blend). This calculation be madeusing thefollowing rclationshiP: Slurrvdensiw=

+ + vol. of cement vol. of additives vol. of water

of and PhysicalPropenies WaterRequiremens Components Component G Class Cement PozmixA Bentonite Gravity* Specific 3.14 2.46 2.65 WaterRequirement 5.2 gals/ 94 lbs. 3.75gals /74Ibs. 1.3galslZVolsk.ofcement

)',

Comoonent

Wt Obs)

Conversion

3$sr-*
= 66.0x 0.0382 BalVlb = galVlb 22.0 x 0.0487 = 3.5 x 0.@53 Bals/lb = 59.8 x 0.120 BalsAb lbs 151.3

Absolute Volume gals 2.52

Water Requirement gals 3.65 1.1 I 2.42 7.18

G Class Poanix A Benonite Warcr

r.07.
0.16 7.18 gals 10.93

= of Waterrequirement 7.18gaVsack 70-30blend = of Slurryyield = 10.93galsl/.48gals,/Ftl 1.46Ft3/sack blend - 13.8ppg = gals 1by10.93 Slurrydensity 151.3 * Frompp 14-15, of Section23DlI Refercncc l1 of t8 havea lower specificgravity thanclassG Note that both of the additives rcgardingslurry densityrcduction, significance, but cement, of evengreater of is the high waterrequirement bentonite.Thereareotheradditiveswhich slurries(in therange light wcightcement suitable canbe usedto formulate that The of 12ppgto neatslurrydensities). additives functionby virmeof a (in metasilicate dry or liquid form), includesodium high waterrequirement in calsinedclay includedduringthemanufacnringof the cement(examples the USA are Trinity Litewate and TXI Lightweight cements),and in is prehydrated bentonite.If bentonite allowedto prchydrate freshwater may be the is beforethe calcium-rich cement added, amountof bentonite G a by reduced a factorof 3.6. For example, lTVo(bwc) bentonite/class slurry hasa densiryof 12.8ppg, if the bentoniteis dry blendedwith the (bwc) of bentonite is cement. If the bentoniteis prehydrated,3.33Vo slurry. Additives G to rcquired fomtulatea12.8ppgbentonite/class cement primarily on low specificgravity to lower slurry densityinclude that depend earth, perlite and gilsonite. Gilsonite also has bridging diatomaceous which makeit well suitedfor lost circulationapplications.To characteristics (densities therangcof 8.5 '12.0 in slurries forrrulateultralightwell cement to ppg) it is necessary usegasasan additive. The gasrnaybe in the form of in bubbles(foam) or encapsulated hollow glassor ceramic dispersed spheres.

23

High density slurriesare formulatedby using additiveshaving specific gravity higherthan that of cementand by minimizing the waterto solids ratio to the extent possible. If available,ffi
t+YfgffffC EJr wcler

The water required by ClassH evenfurther(from 4.3 gpsto 3.4 gps)by the useof can cement be rcduced suchasHalliburton'sCFR -2. The5bwc of a dispersant 0.75Vo (S.G.of 4.23 and of 5.02 2.46 galsper 100lb. sack)t(S.G. waterrequirement and water requirementof 0.36 gals per 100 lb. sack). Hematite (Halliburton'sdesignation ID-3) is the obvious choice if maximum is effect is desired. The formulationof a 19.5ppg slurry densityincrease slurry can be illustrated by the following slurry density and yield calculation: Component Wt 0bs) Conversion Factor* Absolute Volume gals 3.59 .06 0.72 3.51 7.88 Wuer Requirement gals 3.4 .11 3.51

ClassH CFR.2 HD.3 Wacr

galVlb 94.0 x 0.0382 0.7 x 0.@23galsAb 30.0 x 0.0239gals/lb 29.2 x 0.120galVlb lbs 153.9

= of Waterrequirement 3.51galVsack cement Slurryyield = 7.88galsfr.48galVft3= 1.05ft3lsack = lb$t.88 84ls= 19.5ppg Slurrydensity 153.9 * Frompp 14-15, and 18of section 11. 230/Iof Refercnce 4. C DensitvMeastrement Appendix of API Soec10 Slurr.v of Measurement slurry densiryprovidesa meansof monitoring slurry qualiry contrcl both in the laboratoryandin the field- All well cementing slurries(neat and additive-containing)must be mixed at the design of ratio, and slurry densityis a direct measure this imponant water/solids designparameter.

24

for the AppendixC of API Spec10describes procedures performingslurry fluid using either a mud balanceor a pressurized densitymeasurements is balance preferredfor siurrieswhich deniity balance. The pressurized tend to entrainair whenmixed. Someorganicadditivesand NaCl, i.e. in resultin slurry air entrainment. seawater, 5. 6 and SlurrLConsistency FreeWater- Section andAppendixB of API Specl0 process verificationthatthe useof is An importantstepin theslurrydesign "b@k" valuesfor waterrequirement resultin a slurry having acceptable The that this characteristics. reason and consistency free wateroccurence can cement additives vary from time to time and is stepis needed because incremental adjustments water to of and from placeto place; therefore, for solidsratio may be needed a particularslurry. of a It hasbeenfoundthat a slurryshowing consistency ll ABc + 2 ABc pressure of atter20 minutes stirringat roomtempefturein anatmosphericof and free water occurence < 2.5 mL after standing consistometer ratio. This with regardto water/solids quiescent 2 hoursis acceptable for after the API water contenttest which is easilydone test is patterned in described AppendixB of API Spec10(Ref2). 6. Alterationin Rateof Set is mostoftenusddfor thispurpose CaCl2.The effectof CaCl2 The additive strengthof API on both the thickeningtime andearly time compressive ClassA cementis shownbv the dataof Table VI which was takenfrom 1. Reference

25

TABLE VI EFFECTOF CALCIUM CHLORIDEIJPONTHE THICKENING TIME STRENGTHOF API CLASSA CEMENT AND COMPRESSN/E
Walerratio:5.2gal/sk. lb/gal. Slurryweight:15.6 Calcium Chloride (percent) 0.0 2.0 4.0

Curing Time (hours) 6 12 24 48

h

12 24 6 't2 24
Notr: N.S. ' Not Sct.

min.) Time(hours: Thickening API Squeeze Cementing Tests for Teststor API CasingCementing Simulated Well Oepth (tt) of Well Depth(ft)ol Simulated 6,000 4'000 1,000 gooo 4,ooo 6,000 4000 1,0@ 0:58 1:52 3:30 3:8 2:{ 2:23 4:12 4:t$ 0:30 0:54 1:30 1:20 1:6 1:10 1:55 1:4il 0:23 0:37 0:48 0:53 0:50 0:58 0:50 0:32 (psi) Strength Compressive At API CuringPressure of and Temoetature Pressure, At Atmospherlc Calcium and Temperature of psi 1,600 8@ psi Chloride 11 0 0 F 950F (percent) 400F 860 235 7S N.S. N 0 1,525 1,065 405 70 N.S. 0 3,680 2,7't0 1,930 30 910 0 4,8n 5,280 3,920 s05 r0 2,1 0 1,700 1,170 460 850 N.S. 2 2,850 2,360 1,540 785 55 2 5,025 4,450 3,980 4t5 2 4m 1,7n 1,225 1,095 755 N.S. 4 2,600 2,325 r,675 955 15 4 4,540 4,550 3,980 400 4 2,4n

for regarding useof CaCl2asa setaccelerator cement the Somecomments follow:

Its use at any

rcsulsinrytr concentrarion
is04Vo (bwc). Theuse rangefor CaCl2 concentation Theeffective in of concentrations excessof 4Vo (bwc) does not result in greater acceleration. Also, thehigherconcentrations set significantly (in excess 4Vo)havethe undesirable effectsof causinga higher of cementexothermand the durability of the set cementis affected adverscly.
The effect of the addition of NaCl to cement is not as straight-forward as is the case for

26

G timeof anAPI Class cement in CaCl2.Themanner whichthethickening of concentrations NaCl is shownin Figure8. responds changing to Figure8

z =
o
G

-.
uJ

tr
LlJ

o z 2

8.OOOFT. API CASING TEST

I
I

0 PERCENT SALT BY VTJEIGHT WATER OF Effect of salt on thickening time API Class G cement.:

in The dataof Figure 8 show a decrease thickening time, i.e. accelerationin rate of set, as the concentration of NaCl in the mix water is increasedfrom 0 to about 5Voby weight of water (bww); as the NaCl concentrationis further increasedto half-sanration (187o bww) the degree of accelerationis less and the effect on thickening time of lSVobww NaCl is similar to the effect of }Vo. Although seawatershows some geognphical variation in saliniry, averagevalue for NaCl concentration is about 3Vobww and about 0.77o bww for Callvlg Cl2. Therefore,if usedas mix water for cement, seawater acceleratesthe rate of set of cement, as compared to fresh mix water. Between 187obww and saturation(36Vobww) the NaCl functions as a set

(or retarder either)for rctarder. that resultsin fluid contamination any aqueous because well cements effecton thickening will of alteration NaCl concntration havea pronounced of havinghighconcentrations foundthatsetcements time. Also,it hasbeen NaCl are more sensitiveto attack by acid gasesthan are low salinity cements. (SMS) to lower the densityof cement The useof sodiummetasilicate chapter this section.SMS also of in wasdiscussed a precceding slurries the accelerates setof cement.

27

is Retardation: A setretarder usedmore commonlythan an accelerator the because cementhydrationrcactionis driven to completionmorequickly downhole (seeFigure 5). The by the higher temperaffes encountered chemical additives most often used for this purposeare Ca or Na/Ca are HR-4 or HR-7, thesecompunds i.e., lignosulfonates, Halliburton's (BHCT) up to for recommended bonom hole circulating temperatures (Flalliburton's HR-5) are used 175'F. Modified (purined)lignosulfonates in at BHCT up to 210' F. At higherwell temperaures the BHCT rangeof and salt of an 210' F - 400' F, a combinationof calcium lignosulfonate is fitting this description HR-12. retarder Halliburton's organicacidis used; by can of The activityof this lastclass retarders beenhanced theadditionof (BORAX); BORAX is usedin therangeof decahydrate sodiumtetraborate suchasHR-12. Many fluid loss with a retarder 1:1to 4:1 in conjunction if instances, fluid loss (FI-A) (discussed next)alsoretald;in some additives for control is needed a slurry, a single additive can perform the dual of function. An example this typeadditiveis carboxymethyl Fl-A,/retarder (CMFIEC), whichis soldasDiacelLWL; CMI{EC hydroxyethylcellulose at is an effectiveretarder BHCT up to 250' F. for that a to It is important select rctarder is intended usein the temperature range temperature to rangecorresponding that of the well. A moderateand retarderis ineffective at higher temperatures if a high temperature is the retarderis used at lower tempcratures required concenrration low. unmanageably 7. Fluid LossRateControl Severalyears ago, bentonitewas the only fluid loss additive (FLA) available. Now polymertype FLA's, i.e. DiacelLWL andothermodified celluloses,typified by Hallibunon's Halads, are the most widely used materials. The choice of a fluid loss additive should be basedon the and of temperature use(as with retarders) alsoon the salinity of the mix that threshoid, is, they water. Most FLA's haveaneffectiveconcentration is show little activity until a certain concenuation reached. For many is FLA'S, this concentration 0.75 - 0.8 percent(bwc). Most of the this polymer-type FLA's retardthe setof the cement. In someinstances, sideeffectmaypemrittheFI-A to performdoubleduty asFLA andretardeq

28

of may result and acceleration setwill be in otherwells, over retardation (80-125' applications for FLA's intended usein low temperature required. FLA is Halliburton's of an D arenow available; example a low temperanre it Halad-4. This classof additivenot only is non-retarding providessome setirccgleration. 8. Streneth Conrurcssive As was notedin the cementtestingsection,the minimum compressive to variesaccording the application.For requiredof a setcement strength most cementsin most wells the attainmentof minimum acceptable strengthis not a problem. There are two sinrationswhich compressive do requirespecialattention. Most low densiryformulations not develop requiredof a completioninterval cement, strength 2000 psi compressive data strength compressive WOC time. As anexample, within a reasonable "RedBook" (11) show12 230N of theHalliburton foundon p.3of Section for strength neatClassA cement(slurry density15.6 hour compressive psi. The same modifiedby the classA cement ppg)curedatlz}'F as 1905 (slurrydensityof 14.1ppg)curedat the same of bwc bentonite addition 6Vo of strength 1710psi. This indicateda 72 hour compressive temperature ratio is inevitable,and it helpsexplainthe effect of higherwater/cement leadslurry economical practice usinga low density, of primarycementing completion over the intended tail followedby a neat-density slurryplaced interrral. is The othersituationrequiringspecialattention for cementusedin wells at havinghigh BHST (> 250"F). Setcement BHT 250" F will undergo of in strengthand increase permeabilitybecause a loss of compressive from the F Oeta)to the o (alpha) in C2Scomponent change the hydrated by can form. This rctrogression beprevented theadditionof 35-40percent .(bwc) silica to thecement.The silica mustbe nominally 160meshor finer frac sandis not suitedfor this purpose.Thereiue two typesof fine silica that may be used. One is referred to as silica flour (Halliburton's it is designation SSA-1),sincesilicaflour hasa waterrequirement is suited density slurries. The other fine silica is for high temperature/reduced # properlyrcferredto asOklahoma 1 silicaor fine glasssand(Halliburton's and this is designation SSA-2); silicadoesnot havea waterrequirement it is

"'t ttu [utL

29

density slurries. Greatest suited for usc in high temperature/increased of benefit of silica occurs at a concentration 35-40 percent(bwc); gt_.22 percent (bwc)silicaaredetrimental. concentrations 9. Conclusions the by are Cementslurriesfor well cementing designed first considering into which the imposedon the cementand the environment requirements cementwill be placed.A cementslurry intendedto satisfy the aboveis in changes for and prepared the laboratory tested suitabiliry. Necessary in until the slurry is right for the slurry designcan thenbe made,asneeded, intended application.

30

m.

PRIMARY CEMENTING A. Introduction can Primarycementing be definedas the placingof cementin the annularspace betweenthe outsidesurfaceof steelcasingand the boreholewall or, in some by the instances, inside surfaceof previouslyset casing. This is accomplished pumpingcementslurry downtheentirelengthof thecasingout the bottomjoint and into the annularspace.The cementis thenallpwedto setbfore drilling is resumed and casingstrings a production of The or the well is cornpleted. cementing several liner in an examplewell is shownin Figure 9 from Referencel3.GIF;P

ry

Figure9 CasingProgram

Tygr crsing Conducior crting

Typlcrl
d!9lhc, tl

20.no

Surlrct c.ring

2n - 4W
Inlamadiata casing

llcmg nol 3hown includt caJng hrrdwrrc .nd tiabrck cuinC. Tha tirback caring conncct! rl tha lin.r loo and arlandt lo lha 3urtaca.

2,000- 30,000

ffil

c.'.nr

functions. The performshydraulicandmechanical The setprimary cementsheath (sealing) the functionachieves following: performance thehydraulic proper of stream fluidsfrom theproduction extraneous Exclude

31

* * *

to treaoncnts thetargetinterval Confinestimulation and Confinesecondary teniaryrecoveryprocesses well control in eventof a Casingshoesmust be soundto accomplish P'roblem

* * *

(reservoir patterns control) controloverproduction Exercise Prwent externalcasingcorrosion Preventcontaminationof fresh water aquifiers by formation fluids. This of in importance wells usedfor disposal produced functionis of particular brines.

to: strength mechanical sufficient mustdevelop Setcement * t' * * * whenperforated Not shaner Providecasingsupport Absorbdrilling shock Preventcasingbuckling if Supporrthe formation. This is of particularimportance halite (NaCl) interyalsarpenetrated

C.

SubsurfaceEquipment are equipment shownin subsurface The rnostimponantitemsof primarycementing 12). from Reference Figure10(taken 1. GuideShoe
The guide shoecan be an open-endcollar, with or without a molded nose;it

32

Figure10 Equipment Pnimary Cementing Subsurface

33

pastirregularities in the is run on the first joint of casingandguides casing down thecasingandout the openendof thehole. Circulationis established the guide shoe or through side ports. Side ports provide a meansof maintainingcirculationif the casingrestson bottom or is pluggedwith i cunings.

2.

Float Shoerto[ar in The "float" whetherit is incorporated the shoeor a collar or both is check valve. The valve preventsfluids from basicallya backpressure enteringthe casingwhile pipe is loweredinto the hole. This resuitsin on reducingthe hook load. Depending thedepthof the well, the densityof resistance ratingof thecasing, thedrilling fluid in theholeandthecollapse to it may be necessary partiallyfill the casingwith drilling fluid from the as surface it is run to preventcasingcollapse. Examplecalculations illustratingthis point follow:
Consider an 8300 foot well with 12.5 ppg drilling fluid in the hole into which L7lbltt 5 ll2 K-55 casing will be run. The hydrostatic pressure imposed by the drilling fluid at the bottom of the hole would be

l2.5lbtgat.x ft x .052 8300 m=

psi 5395

and the minimum collapse pressurerating of 17 lb/ft K-55 casing (p. 56 section200 of Reference11) is 4910 psi. This casingstring should be able to resist hydrostatic prcssureto a depth of

psi D ft r2.Slblgat.x x.052m= 4910

Dft =7554feet soatleastthebottom

34

feet 8300-7554 = 746feet is be should frlledwith drilling fluid asthecasing run into thewell. whichwill permitthe available fill-up shoes TherearedifferentiaVautomatic or predetermined extent(usually907o SlVorz).These to casing fillto some float devicelardnotwidelyusedastheyarelessreliablethanconventional offersmorccontrolof extent float equipment and equipment, conventional has of fill. Differential fill-up equipment beenpromotedas a meansto has while casingis bcingrun. The equipment been prcssurc surges reduce found to be ineffectivefor this purpose.Oncecasinghasbeenrun to the throughthe casingandfloat valve depthcirculationis established desired and up throughthe annulus. When the pumpingof cementslurry is flow backof cementinto the valve prevents the completed, back-pressure joints off bottom, has casing.A float collar,whichcanbeplaced1-3casing in over u advantage a float shoe thatthemudfilm andotherdebrispushed wiper plug will remaininsidethe of ahead the top cementing immediately regionof theannulus. into of instead beingdeposited thecriticalshoe casing
J.

WiperPlues Cementing The useof a of Also, theseating thetop wiperplug at thefloat collarprovides pressul ttrat indicationwhich signals thejob hasbeenpumped. The top wiper plug is solid rubbeq the bottom wiper plug has a hollow by core,which is covered a rubberdiaphragm.It is importantthat thenvo Whenthebottom sequence. into plugsbe inserted the casingin theProper up is plug seats the float collar, thediaphragm rupnred by pressuring and at be job the through plug. If thetop plug should run in thecement is pumped the bottomposition,thejob cannotbe pumpedthroughthe solid plug; the of from the casingbecause the circulated be cementslurry ca,nnot reverse has checkvalve actionof thefloat, andtheoperator a real problem.

4.

Centralizers removal of drilling fluid from the annulusit is To achieveadequate important that the casing be centralizedso the cementslurry will be

35

also help prevent flow path. Centralizers presented with a symmetrical sticking of the casing and keep the casingfrom enteringkey seats. on is by Centralization accomplished placingcentralizers thecasing;bowand are springcentralizers usedin openhole sections, rigid-typeinsideof for requirements pipe. API Specl0 D (Ref 13)definesminimumstrength are on requirements based a carryingtheAPI monogram.These centralizers provide starting force and a restoringforce. Most servicecomPanies based casing on of on recommendations theproperplacement centralizers sizeandholedeviation.ffi load,holesize,casing

in sections the of be they centralizers; should located gauge monogrammed and hole(if possible), theyshouldbesizedto nominalholesize+ U4". 5. Scratchen to that classof hardware may be attached thecasing. are Scratchers another Thereare two typesof scratchers thosethat areusedwhenthe casingis rotatedand thoseusedwhen the casingis reciprocated.SeieflgS-3r .ir c.*'-' ^'- | ! if lllFlfl$e ,cffectinc-onlv thecasint'is movedwrhile has always been open to of The effectivencss scratchers ;hele. is qucstion; some skepticsstate that the only bcnefit of scratchers to to the encourage operator movethepipe. D. Eouipment Surface Cernentine which and usinga dry blendof cement additives, is Well cenrenting accomplished (solid the downhole. Alternately, additives is mixedwith water,andthenpumped "solution" is mixed with dry or liquid) may bc addedto the mix water and this requiredto mix andpump equipment cementto form theslurry. Thercfore,surface slurry mixers, or a slurry includedry blenders liquid injectors,bulk transporters, head. pumps, and slurrydensiometer, cementing

36

1.

Drv Blenders pozzolans, silica, and bentonite, Bulk dry additives,i.e. barite,hematite, the are usedin relatively large amounts(approaching weight of the dry dry cementin someformulations). Chemically-active additives,i.e. are fluid loss additives,and dispersants, usedin retarders, accelerators, of (tensof poundsof additivein thousands pounds relatively smallasrounts of dry cement). The problemsof producingan effectivedry blend with of eitheror both typesiue similar: the correctamounts additivesmustbe the throughout blend. mustbe uniformlydistributed usedandthe additives suchas container cubicfoot capacity usinga 300-400 This is accomplished shownby Figure1l (Ref 1). theexamples (usuallyrefered to as "blend bottles"or "pods")ate TheSc Cgntainers into transferred or out of thepod so equipped materialcanbe pneumatically and also agitatedwhile in the pod. A recenttechnicalpaperentitled "Obtaining Verifying thatthe Blends"(Ref 14)reports and QualityCement for mainrcasons poorperformingblendsare: of Incorrect additivesor incorrect concentrations the proper additives. that cement.This is usuallya cement of Poorperformance thebase specifications. doesnot meetAPI performance (aA transferand admixbottle) All dry blendingmethods agitation, of perform bestif dry solids are< 30Vo the blend bottle volume. to The admixbottleblendingmethodis lesssensitive blendsizethan arc theothersystems.

LAS (Liquid Additive Systems) Liquid additives may be addedto the mix water directly from the shipping containers or they may be metered into the mix water from an onsite reservoir using what is often referred to as a LAS. In the use of liquid additivesthere are precautionsto be obsewed. If the neededconcentration of a given liquid additive in a slurry is intendedto match the concentration of a more familiar solid additive, then the specific gravity and Voactiviry of

37

Figure11 Bulk BlendBottles

5-.:-

lZ.---'

--_ -E

-_:.

z-

------te'--

-'
--.-

4-7Aircraft bulk units for use in remote areas.

bulk storageand bleoding plaot. Land-bascd

rnd pumping unis. Marine bulk cementing

38

the liquid additive must be considered.This point is illustratedby the below: calculation examplc of of to a Consider slurry that wasintended be composed 100sacks Class bwc of HR-5 (a Halliburtondry retarder);it by G cementretarded 0.5Vo of HR6L (theliquid equivalent HR-5). to wasdecided substitute * weightof dry cement: 100sx x 94 lbs/sx= 9400lbs * slurry: weightof HR-5 in thedesign 9400lbs x .005= 47 lbs HR6L hasa specificgraviryof from Halliburton, to According information active 1.21andis 40Vo * of densiry HR6L is lbs/gal t.21 x 8.33lbVgal= 10.08 * per andtheactivecomponent gallonof HR6L is
.4 x 10.08= 4.03 lbs and *

the required HR6L for the redesignedslurry would be

nfr'r* ffidt&F,ffir=t''
Someliquid additivesare not truly solublein the mix water but are dispersible. Someagitationof the mix water will be requiredas liquid are additives introduced.

39

the Finally, as the most importantprecaution, densityof liquid additive sltnriesmustbecontrolledprecisely. It is importantto mix any slurry at the ratio, i.e. to the designslurry density,so the proPerties designwater/solids will development) be (consistency, water,thickening time andstrength free as specifiedand asexpected.In a liquid additiveslurry (or any slurry with not additivesdissolvedin the mix water)if the slurry densitydeviates, only ratio andthe but ratio changed so is theadditive/cement is the water/cement effect on slurry propeitiescanbe pronounced.

3.

SlurryMixers Cement typemixer (referred Well cement slurriescanbe mixedusinga continuous to as a jet mixer), a batch mixer, or the more recently developed mixer (oftenreferredto nsa RCM). The RCM incorporates recirculating and feannesof both a continuous barchmixer. in 15) Thejet mixer (picturedin Figure 12from Reference wasdeveloped l92O; it utilizes a hopperwhich receivesdry cementby gravity from a falls into a mixing bowl andis mixed with water silo. The cement storage an through orifice. at whichis admined highpressure The jet mixer is not limited with regardto quantityof slurry and it is in disadvantage theuseof a rnechanically simpleandreliable.Theprincipal jet mixeris thedifficulty in exercising controloverslurrydensity.With the the of introduction theRCM (in thelate 1970's) popularityof thejet mixer of as encountered thc primarymeans slurry declinedandit is now seldom mixing. 36) A batchslurry mixer (Figure 13 from Reference is a tank usuallyof about100bbl capacity. andagitatecementslurries. to The batchmixer is equipped mix, circulate, blown The mix watermay beplacedin the batchmixer andthedry cement into the waterwhile agitationis taking placeor the slurry may be mixed using a jet mixer and thenpumpedinto the unk for uniform mixing and densityadjustment.Many prefer to mix the slurry slightly heavierthan in desired a batchmixer andthenaddwaterto bring the slurry to the exact design density. Rememberthat surfacetime is oneof the factors in the

40

Figure12 JetMixer

Figure13 BatchSlurrvMixer

PNEHYDRATOR

WATER II{LET CEI{TRIFUGAL PUTP

TO OISPLACEMENT PUIIPS RECTRCUtatIXG CETEilT SUCTIOI{

4l

thickening time equation, so the time required to manipulate the slurry in the batch mixer should be allowed for and this surfacetime should be observed on the job. Two radial axial-flow turbinesand a recirculating pump provide mixing action and homogeneity for the slurry. Halliburton's version of the RCM is shown as Figure 14.

Figure14 Mixer of Schematic Recirculating

R e c i r c u l a t i n c i x e rm o u n t e d n t r u c k . m o

Autr CtvEnl IilLEI

SuLx cEutt COtrIROL VALJE

V t/)

V l x r t o G* A T E r t\LEf

t S Cx E t v a r t C R E C I R C U L A T I MG E R S Y S T E M N IX

42

time in the RCM, slurry density control Since thereis someslurry residence is more readily accomplishedin the RCM than in a jet mixer. For small jobs and plug setting,RCM's are often volume cementjobs, i.e. squeeze used as small batch mixers. Halliburton's RCM has a capacity of about 7.5 barrels.

4.

Densimeter For a cement slurry to have its desired and expectedproperties it must be mixed to the design density. A working, properly calibrated densimeter to mountedon the cementingunit is useful to the cementeras he has access a continuous readout of slurry density and can make adjustmentsin water/solidsfeed as needed. The printed strip chart display provides a utilize a Cesium- 137 pennanentrecord of slurry qualiry. Most densimeters detectorwhich are attachedto a short pup joint sourceand a Geiger-counter dischargeline. It is important to place the that is placedin the high pressure source in a high pressureline so the effect of air entrainmenton slurry density will be minimized. The unit is normally caiibratedwith fresh water in the line and the span can be set by referenceto a known source. It can by also be calibratedby referenceto the actual slurry densify, as measured a (AppendixC of API Spec 10,Ref 2). pressurized fluid densitybalance

5.

Heads Cementing The cementing headis an attachmenton the top of the casing to which the cementinglines are attached. The top and bottom wiper plugs are also head. A two-plug headis shownas Figure 15. pumpedfrom the cementing (16) Currently in use are single-plug containers,double-plug containers,and rotating heads. The double-plug container holds both plugs and allows continuous operation, once Pumping of cement slurry has started. A rotating head holds both plugs and allows for casing rotation while cementing.

43

Figure15 Head Two Plug Cement

DOUBLE LUG EMENT EAD P H C

TOP CEMENTING

7-----V
',

\--\--

I-\L

L---J

lt lt 7 a
t

\-

ll7 ltl-

/,' z<a
I --.^

.L--._Jt :2

ll"/

r {)

- lT ? /

i,rp l---4(D)

s\;--

ssssssssssssssssiiL
I t

-ll

117 I\L

,17

Vr'

BOTTOM CEMENTING PLUG

E.

to Primary CementingProcedures EnhanceSuccess 1.

Problems Controllable Thereire somepotentialprimary cementingproblcmsthat are not only connollablebut can be and shouldbe avoidedby properdesign and below. problems discussed are execution.These jobs are not large numberof primary cementing A surprisingly pumpedbecause problemswith the slurry. These of successfully or failurescanbe theresultof no prcjobtestingof the composition of causes not theprejobtesting beingproperlydone. Otherfrequent dry problems an improperlyconstituted blendor a non-uniform are whichcanbe developed test dry blend-A colorimetric (17)hasbeen "agreement" the field dry blendwith of usedin the field to indicate the design dry blendand alsothe uniformity of the dry blend (by samples).Also, oneof the morecommon(and analyzing several slurryis too often problems) thatthecement is avoidable completely density. not mixedto thedesign

44

It is desirable to conduct a primary cementing operation with full returns. Loss of cement slurry to the formation will result in uncertainty with regard to top of cement (TOC); this can be important if the primary cement is required to cover a potential productive interval or fresh water sand uphole, or if TOC needsto be placed inside an intermediatecasing string. A coincidental problem, which can occur if returns are lost, is cement filter cake bridging in the annulus resulting in loss of the ability to pump the job. This event occurscoincidentallywith loss of returnsbecause formation material with undamaged(by mud filter cake) formation permeability and porosity is exposedto the cement slurry if the formation is fractured. The relatively high filtration rate cement slurry can then form a filter cake bridge in the annulus rendering further pumping impossible. l,ost circulation while cementing can be minimized by reducing the hydrostatic pressureexerted by the this gradientwill not be exceeded; cementslurry so fracturepressure by is accomplished reducingslurry density. It is not uncornmonto pcrform a primary cementing operation using a low density lead slurry and a higher density, high strengthtail slurry, so as to reduce overall hydrostatic loading and still have cement of suitable properties over the completion interval. Also, lost circulation material such as cellophane flakes and/or granular material, i.e. Gilsonite, can be added to the cement slurry to promote bridging in a fracturc or vug. So, lost circulation is a controllable problem with slurry design being the principal meansof control. An operational procedurc that is sometimesemployed to regain returns, if returns are lost during cementing,is to slow the pumping rate. of pumpedbecause Finally, somecementjobs are not successfully equipment malfunctions. The avoidance of these problems is primarily the responsibilityof the cementingservicecompany,but on representative thejob should be satisfiedthat lines, the operator's cementing head and manifolds have been pressuretested,and that therc is redundancyfor the critical equipment items.

45

2.

in of Separation mud/cement the oipe

Equipment Section. It is important to use both in discussed the Subsurface top and bottom wiper plugs so drilling mud and mud contaminatedcement will not be left in the critical casing - shoe region of the annulus. This undesirableresult can be illustrated by the following calculation. If it is assumedthat 8500 ft of 29lbs/ft 7" casing will be cementedusing only a in top wiper plug and that a mud film averaging 1132" thicknessis left after mud/cementslurry in the of the passage the cementslurry, the contaminated lower part of the well would amount to 6.4barrels. [f Volume 1 (V1) is the volume of the clean, wiped casing and Volume 2 (Y) is the volume of the casing with the U32" mud film and the i.d. of the 29 lbs/ft, 7" casing is 6.184"(p. 36 of Section200 of Ref. 11).

ft)2 Vr = n rf h =tt (0-25765 8500ft and ft f02 Yz= nrf h =n (0.25505 8500 cu cu Vr - Vz = 1772 ft - 1736 ft = 36cu ft
and 36 cu ft (.1781bbls/cuft) = 6.4 6O,t If a float shoeis employed,all of the mud would enter the annulusand this could amount ro 37.35 ft/bbi* (6.4) = 239' of mud in the lower part of an 8-314"x 7" annulus or an even longer interval of mud contaminated cement, if there is some mixing of the mud and cement. Even if a float collar one joint off bottom is used in this hypothetical well, the capacity of 29lblftT" casing is26'92 ft/bbl**, 26'92 ft (6'4) = 172'and there would be mud left in the lower joint of casing and also in the annulus.
* **

P. 44 of Section122of Ref. 11 210 P. 20 of Section of Ref. 11

46

3.

(Displacement) in of Separation Mud/Cement theAnnulus to is of removal drilling mudfrom theannulus essential achieving Adequate has of This aspect primarycementing received success. primarycementing removalof mud than from researchers anyother. Inadequate moreattention of contamination the will resultin dilution of the cementslurry,chemical (columnof bypassed of sufficientvertical mud slurryor channeling cement seal that extent thereis lossof hydraulic in theannulus). and of Dilution and/orcontamination a cementslurryoccursif thecement from mud whichresults mudmix moreor lessuniformly,unlikechanneling intact. essentially slurryandmudremaining and beingbypassed thecement dilutionis theleast mud from inadequate removal, resulting Of theproblems serious.

Glry
by ratiocanbereduced the The waterto cement ffi (D-S) D-65, as was i.e, use of a dispersant, Dowell-Schlumberger's section.Theeffectof muddilutionon slurrydesign in discussed thecement is by strength shown thedataof TableVII, whichwas compressive cement 18. of fromTable10.1 Reference derived TABLE VII EFFECTOF MUD DILUTION ON STRENGTHOF CEMENT CuringTime: 12Hours 230"F CuringTemperature:
Mud Dilution (7o\ CompressiveStrength (psi) CementA

0 10 30 60

29r0 2530 1400 340

B Cement 7010 5005 2970

23r5

47

CementA is mixedwith 5.2 gals.mix waterand hasa slurrydensityof 15.6ppg. is B Cement hasa dispenantadded, mixed with 3.48gals.mix waterand hasa slurrydensityof 17.4pPg.
It is not possible to generalizeconcerning the effect of contamination by mud chemicalson the cement,since the effect is variable dependingon the particular mud system. Lignosulfonate mud thinners retard cement set; mud can causethe thereforecontalninationby a highly treatedwater-based cement to be overretarded. The internal aqueousphaseof some oil-based of muds has a high concentration CaClz; contaminationby this type mud can causepremanre set of the cement. The effect of NaCl on the rate of set of cement was describedin the slurry design section; it can accelerateor rctard depending on the concentration, so NaCl in drilling mud or any wellbore fluid is a potentialcontaminantfor cement,but its effect is difficult to predict. The best approach to a contamination problem is prevention; preventionof contaminationof the cementslurry while it is in the casingcan be achievedby the use of two wiper plugs. After the cement slurry enters aheadof the cementslurry, the annulus,the useof a fluid spacer/preflush behind the resident drilling mud is used to addressthe contamination problem. As will be describedin a following section,a properly chosen is fluid spacer/preflush also of benefit in achievingremoval of bulk mud. A variety of techniquesand materials has been developed to achieve of displacement bulk drilling mud from the annulus,i.e., avoid adequate channeling. A synopsisof techniquesand materialsfor achieving effective is on with emphasis recentrelevantresearch, found in the sub displacement, sectionwhich follows. a. Displacement There are three publications which provide background for the formulation of practical proceduresand materiaisintended to resuit in effective displacanent. Haut and Crook (Reference19) reponed the resultsof a study which utilized a large scaleflow model (shown as schematically Figure 15.1).

48

Fieure 15.1

'l n lo

-The downholesectronot the test aooaratusconsistsof a permeable sand tormationin which mud is circulatedand casingrs sel as shown.

49

The test section of the flow model (denoted

"formation" in Figure

15) consistsof a consolidatedsand 10 ft long with 6 ll2-inch i.d., having high, low or no penneability. Most of the experiments were performed using a high pemreability test section of about 1 Darcy pemreability. The test drilling fluids were water-basedmuds with ppg cement densitiesin the nmge of 14-17ppg. Sixteen- Seventeen slurries with yield points of 0, 33 or 116 lbs/100ft2 were employed as the displacing fluids. To perform an experiment, the system (everything inside the testing jacket) was saturatedwith water, then the drilling fluid was circulatedinto the casingand retumed through the 5-inch x 6-inch annulusfor one hour at 3 bpm and temperature of 180' F; the volume of filtrate lost through the synthetic formhtion was then raised to 200' was measured.The heatingoil temperature F and the mud allowed to snnd quiescentfor 24 hours with 100 psi confining prcssureimposed During this period, the mud gelled and lost additional filtrate, which was measured. There followed a I "well" hour period of mud circulation at 3 bpm and 180' F. The was then cementedusing, for most of the tests, sufficient slurry to cement 1200' of a S-inch x 6 llZ-inch annulus. The temperature was increasedto 230" F and the cement was allowed to cure for 24 "wafers" were cut so hours. The test sectionwas cooled and sample casing stand-off and mud displacement efficiency could be measured. The data developed by this study are summarized by Figure 16. "fluid" (drilling of It is apparentfrom Figure 16 that the characteristics the resident mud) and the rate at which the displacing fluid (cement slurry) is flowed are very important to the efficiency of the displacementprocess. The mud mobility factor MI,IF) referrcd to in Figure 16 can be defined numerically as

IvIIvIF=Vrffi

where

Vr = Volume of mud filtrate collectedduring a test; V6 is not the API fluid loss rate of of the mud. Gtg min = 10 minute gel strengthof the mud. From a consideration the data and observationsof the results of these flow tests Haut and Crook concludedthe following:

50

Figure16

o E

tactor x (Vetocity)2 Mud mobility -This graph plots the percenlof mud displaced a funcllon as lactor(M M F )' As vbtocity times the mud mobility ol cementann'ular shown,the percentof mird removedincreaseswith an increasein M.M.F.,in etfect a decreasein filtrateloss and gel strength'

o initiate for even slight asymmetry. o

that flow of t. It was observed the cement slurry through the narrow side of the annulus was difficult to

It should be noted,though,that a thin (low viscosity,low yield point) cementslurry can be flowed at higher rates than is possibiewith a thicker slurry, and high flow velocity of the displacingfluid is beneficial (seeFigure 16).

Based on a consideration of the velocity distribution in a single flowing non-Newtonianfluid, it has been assumedthat certain flow regimes are favored for the cementslurry. Sincethe axial velocity in laminar flow is not as uniform acrossthe annulusas is the casefor plug flow or turbulent flow, that laminar flow of the cementslurry is to be avoided. somehave assumed fluid, i.e., drilling mud, is being displaced Actually when a non-Newtonian fluid, i.e., cementslurry, instabilitiesat the by a dissimilarnon-Newtonian interface result in mixing regardlessof flow regime. As a result, the

51

interfacial profile in an annulus during a primary cement job does not resemble the velocity profile of the displacing fluid. To summarize, the

reported authors
Tr-^ r.t ^ ^----' "t".'|'."-^.,-r|rh theirobservations or to state somewhat differently, a thick (laminar flow) and a thin (turbulent flow) cement slurry flowed at the sameintermediate flow rate will result in the samemediocredisplacementefficiency (40 - 50Vo). The sametwo slurries flowed at high rates (sameflow regimes as noted above) will achievehigh flowing a cementslurry at efficiency (> 807o). In all instances displacement plug flow ratesresultedin poor displacement. o The duthorsreportedthat differencesin density betweenthe displacing and residentfluids were not a controlling factor with regard to displacement efficiency. The supportingdata are shown as Figure 17.

FigurelT

Pc-en = 72kEmr O Pc- 9m = 360 tgrms A

o o

ts 40
o

100

10r

102

103

104

(velocity)2 Mud mobilit'factor x -Differences in the density of cement and mud are not as importantas the mobilityof the mud, as shown in this graph. The representsdisplacementresultswith equal densaties, crurve while the points represent results with unequal densities.

There are two likely reasonsfor this. MMF and flow velocity of the the displacingfluid are strongoverridingfactors. Secondly, immobile mud gellationand filtration; its densitycan be as high as 34 ppg, hasundergone so density of the parentmud is not relevant.

52

For this large scalemodel studY

.ffi

i iwq'-M

(21). slurry)G the (intewening fluid between mud andcement in are involving preflushes discussed a subsequent The experiments paragraph.
o

the 19 reportedin Reference did not address subjectof The experiments pipe movement.Haut andCrookreviewedan earlierpublicationauthored the whichreported resultsof a study by Mclean, Manry,andWhitaker(20) of for modelthatp'rovided movement theinnerpipe' utilizing a displacement rotation)is (reciprocation and./or that Mclean, et al, reported pipemovement
beneficial.

f Lateral movement of the PiPeis

of as benefitof rcciprocation a given section the annuius an accompanying beween wide andnanow side. will alternate

Haut and Crook urilizedthe flow modelshownby Figure 15 in conjunctionwith the paragraphs investigate to in described thepreceding and thematerials techniques fluids in enhancing of effectivcness low-density,low-viscosiryspacer/preflush 21. efficiency. Their resultsarercportedin Reference They found displacement 9'5 NaCl bww (by waterweight)brine,anda low-viscosity ppg thatwater,187o mud in all spacer rcsulted enhanced removal;sometypical formulated water-based, of dataareshownby Figurc 18,below. Fromtheobservations Haut & Crook,and flow model,a low-density, lowalso Mclean, et al, who uSeda transparent viscosityflush, suchaswater,affectsthe immobilemud in trvo ways. It tendsto to it and the breakdown gel structure, sincethemudis heavier tends sloughandfall fluid. displacing into the lessdense

53

Figurel8

PERCEf{T TUIUO RHUIOVED

WATER ^ 10BBTS e 5{lBBLS WATER

FACTOR MOEITITY X NROCITUz MUO

m - D i s p l a c e m e nt te s t r e s u l t sl o r a h e a v y w e t g h t u d u s i n gw a t e ra s a s p a c e r

If thisis done,thedensiry to be should adjusted a valuelessthanthatof thedrilling fluid so of thespacer/flush citedfor a waterprcflushcanbe achieved. someof the benefits by has field studyof displacement beenreported Kline, Kocianand An interesting Smith (22). For this study,all of the primarycementusedin severalEastTexas raysat an whicheminedgarnma with a shorthalf-liferadioisotope wells wastagged energy different from the natural formation signal. Thc wells were logged gammaray tool. In thirry wells drilled with a spectral immediarelyaftercementing and centralizers, with a 9.2 ppgmud,utilizing a lO-bblwaterpreflush,bow-spring reciprocationand rotation or just casing movement (either simultaneous of to slurry amounted morethan 1007o the fill annular by thecernent reciprocation), 4on volumewasbased an open-hole volume. The calculated annular calculated job. armcaliper survey. Only oneof thc thirty wells rcquireda remedialcementing Obtainingmore than l0O%annularfill is intercsting. This indicatesthat the mud by displacement the cementslurry was very efficient and also that somehole the and whilerunningcasing while conditioning mudandthe occurred enlargement hole by circulation. The spectralgammaray log indicated that the hole

54

i.e., were enlargements irregular, wit

s W

o .*

was In two wells includedin the Kline, et al, studydisplacement lessthan to wasstopped allow the top complete.For oneof thesewells casingmovement could not be resumed.There the plug to be dropped; casingstuckandmovement 100 feet abovethe float was an obviousdeficiencyof cementto approximately (vanedbowcollar. In the otherwell showingdeficientmud removal,turbolizers centralizen.This well showed of instead conventional wereused typecentralizers) as the asross bottomsands. While it could be debated to poor cementcoverage it for wereresponsible the poorcoverage, is evident whether not theturbolizers or that no benefitswerercalized

2.

Summary can operation be of displacement drilling mud duringa primarycementing Adequate by: achieved and gel Utilizing a drilling mud havingminimumtime dependent strength with fluid loss,consistent gmd drilling practice. o
o

Cenaalizingthecasing. but the Conditioning mud/hole, don'toverdoit. fluids (preflushandcementslurry) Moving the casingwhile thedisplacing areflowing in theannulus. low Using a low-densiry, viscosityspacer/preflush.

Pumping the displacing fluids (preflush and cement slurry) as fast as withoutlosingretuns. possible

55

F.

PostJob Considerations After a well has beenprimriry cemented,pressureshould be bled from the casing. If the float valve(s)are holding,i.e., thereis no backflow, the casingshouldbe left while waiting on cementflIVOC). The reasonbeing that if the casingis unpressured if left pressured, will be expa4dedduring the period when the cement is setting (converting from a fluid to a solid). On reducing the pressure,to bring the well in, the casing will contractand the cementsheath,now being rigid, will not conform to the new reduced O.D. and loss of bond between the cement and casing is inevitable. sufficient WOC time must be observedfor the cementto As a secondconsideration, develop adequatestrength before operationsare resumed. For a period of hours after the plug is bumpedthe cementis rigid, but has very little strengthand any "reheal". The during this period doesnot by damagesubstained the cementsheath required period of WOC time varies dependingon the cement and downhole and pressure.As was notedin the cementtestingsection, conditionsof temperature cement used to cement an intermediatecasing string should have compressive strengthof at least 500 psi before drilling is resumed. Completion intervai cement strengthof at least2000 psi before the well is perforated. should havecompressive

G.

SpecialOperations l. Stage Cementing Stagecementingconsistsof placementof cementslurry aroundthe lower porrion of a casingstring using conventionalprimary cementingtechniques. can then be placedthroughports in a stagecollar. upperstages Successive are althoughadditionalstages possible. is Most stagecementing two-stage, Stagecementingis used when a long column of cement is required and formations are exposed in the wellbore which will not support the hydrostatic head, and when two or more widely separatedintervais are of presentwhich must be cemented.The arrangement equipmentfor a stage cementing opelation is shown by Figure 19, which was taken from 16. Reference After first stagecementinghasbeenperformedin a conventionalmanner,an opening bomb is droppedto land in the lower seatof the stagecollar. By

56

Figure19 Two-StageCementing Regular

E7 \

II> rt
''""'.:1"'

!92

57

pressuring up (1200 - 1500 psi) the retaining pins are sheared;the sleeve moves down, and the ports are opened. The well is then circulated to clear the ports and condition mud. Depending on the severity of the lost circulation problem, some time may be allowed for the first stagecement to achieve initial set before performing the secondstagecementing. In cases of severe lost circulation in the vicinity of the first stage or a long interval of annulusbetweenthe top of the first stagecementand uncenrented the stage collar, a cenrentbasket or external casing packer (ECP) may be placed immediately below the stagecollar to prevent fall of the secondstage cemenr. It is important that the casing be well centralizedin the vicinity of the stage collar becausethe stagecollar is a weak point in the casing and needsto be supportedby a uniform cementsheath,also if the casing is lying against the wall of the hole the flow ports may be plugged. Since the displacementenvironment during the secondstageis not ideal (the casing can't be moved) centralizationof the casing, use of a low density, low viscosity preflush and careful conditioning of the mud all become very important. In the case of a deviated well, or when doing continuous twostage cementing a pump down opening plug is used instead of a gravitydriven opening bomb.

2.

Liner Cementing A liner is defined as a string of pipe which does not extend to the wellhead. Liners are usedto case-offbelow an existing casing string. Liners are of three types.

drilling by isolatinga sectionof the Drilling liners areusedto permitdeeper i.e., a hole whichpresents difficult drilling environment, lost circulation, or interval,sloughing plasticformations. overpressurcd and casing, purposes production as linersareusedfor the same Production in in a deepwell theuseof a liner canrcsultin significantsavings steel. Snrblinersextendfrom the top of a liner to a point upholeinsideanother stringof casingor liner. A stubliner is usedto isolateworn or damaged tubularsor to provide additionalprotectionagainst corrosion and/or pressure. possible of A sequence linersin a deepweli is shown excessive 23. by Figure20, from Reference

58

Figure20

sunrrce| | |

l "'..ll l l lf=#i?$" "-.ll r VPRE''URE I l t \

rll

ll I sunmcE

r--r--

lll-cesrrc

i l :._1 \ " \
l l \
l

,--l I
|

(iloRrAL)

| \ I INTERMEDIATE I

y'z cesna I
|

'

FRA. PREssuRE

j tL ,t.--

lF..'*n.,n'* ( \"'.. ll t'=."o"*

fl-srue
I

u$tER reeronmu\

i i

J --L

-)---')
r-r--.r-r-r.-r-r

| ,.oor*o* r*r" V
l g l o l 2 1 . t t o l E 2 o *utvALENr Muo wr.. PPq |

Example of casing and liner program to seal oft high -well (afier Mahoney and Barrios)."' pressure zonei in a deep

of runningandcementing a liner canbeoneof themostchallenging The successful for reasons this. Productionliners are in operarions the oil field. Thereareseveral and temperatures pressures. of often set at greatdepthunderconditions elevated of Usually themostcritical regronfor establishment an annularsealfor productioncasingcementis in the viciniry of the casingshoe;for mostproductionlinersthe shoeandthe lap (top andbonom)arebothcritical regions.Typically, the annular of for clearance a liner is very small. A drilling liner is usuallyrequiredbecause somekind of hole problem,which can also make effectivecementingmore difficult

59

Liner Equipment A typical array of liner cementingequipmentis shown by Figure 21, which was taken from 16. Reference Liners are normally run on drill pipe which usually has smalleri.d. than the liner. Because of this only a top cement wiper plug is used. The wiper plug is loaded into the top of the liner as the liner is being run; the liner cementing plug has a hollow center and it is equippedat its lower end with a seatingshoulder. After the cement slurry has beenmixed through ar rhe surfaceand is in the drill pipe a pump-downplug is launchedwhich passes the drill pipe, seatsin the wiper plug and the combinationplug then performs the usual function of a top wiper plug including seatingin a landing collar in the vicinity of the float. A liner may be set on bottom, but buckling is inevitable and the resulting wall contact makes a difficult mud displacementproblem even more difficult. For this reason a mechanical set (using reciprocation and/or rotation) or hydraulic set (utilizing pump pressure) liner hangerequippedwith slips is usuaily employed. It is important to centralize the liner; bow-spring centralizersmay be usedin the open hole if there is sufficient annular clearance. zugtd centralizersare used in the casing/liner lap region, and also in the open hole in casesof very narrow annularclearances.The length of the lap can be as little as 50 feet for a drilling liner or as much as 500 feet for a production liner. Maximum length of lap is usedif there is gasnear the top of the liner, i.e., near the shoeof the casing string. The Ooeration Becauseof narow annular clearance,long liners should be run slowly to reduce the of tendencyto fracture the formation with surgepressure. Running speeds 2-3 minutesfor eachstandof drill pipe are cornmon. to of displacement drilling mud is essential a successfui Even thoughachievingadequate liner cementingoperation,liners are not usually moved during liner cementing. They can reported a significant improvement in be and should be moved. Kolthoff and Scales(24) in cementing success 210 Sohio Alaska PetroleumCompany wells at PrudhoeBay by changingfrom a 9 5/8" productioncasingcompletion in 10,000ft MD deviatedwells (hole anglesup to 67") to a 7" production liner completion. The improvementin cementing in of was attributedto the factsthat 10,800' 9 5/8" casingcould not be reciprocated success most of thesewells, and 1500feet of 7" liner in the 8 L/2" hole drilled below the 9 5/8" casingshoe could be. To permit reciprocation a hydraulic set liner hangerwas used. The

60

21 Figure LinerCementing
DISPLACING E N D FJ O B O

MIXING

DISPLACING

\J-7
61

liners were reciprocatedthrough one 30 ft cycle per minute while pumping preflush (water in most instances)and cement slurry. After the liner wiper plug seated,the liner hanger was ser hydraulically by pressuringup. When the 8 L/2" hole was drilled, sufficient rathoie was provided so if the liner stuck at the top of the upstroke,the liner shoewould be at the desiredTD or below. Liners can also be rotated by the use of a mechanical set liner hanger which is equipped with a clutch thar is engagedby additionalrotation after setting. The running string is then (2s). and panially disengaged the liner is rotatedusing a splinedrive equippedwith bearings displacementof drilling mud The importanceof liner centralizationin achieving adequate has beendiscussed. Centralizationis also neededto reducethe probability of differentiai sticking of the pipe while running and/orreciprocatingthe liner. use sufficientslurry to cementthe open hole, and the lap region with 25Someoperators 45Voexcess and then clean up by reversecirculation atier stinging the drill pipe out of the liner hanger. During the reversecirculation procedure,the friction pressuredrop resulting from the rerurn fluid flow up the small diameterdri_llpipe is reflectedon the just placed cement slurry. To avoid forcing the slurry down the hole away from the liner lap as a reversingout shouldbe done slowly and carefully, if at all. Other result of rhis pressure, of operatorsuseonly about 80Vo the slurry required to fill the annularvolume then perform of a plannedsqueeze the lap. It is preferredto employ the first technique(cementboth the annuli with someexcess)and then later squeeze lap, if necessary.The reasonsthat the of plannedsqueeze techniqueis not preferredis that the success liner cementingoperations rcported zero failures for wells where hasimproved in recentyears;Kolthoff and Scales(24) the liners were niciprocatedduring the entire time preflush and cementslurry were flowing techniqueinevitabiy leavessome uncemented in the annuli. Also, the plannedsqueeze annulus which can be difficult to accessshould subsequentremedial operations be required. Liner CementingSlurries Sincethe volume of cementslurry requiredto cementliners is relatively small, batch slurry mixers may be used. Batch mix slurries can be more uniform than slurries mixed using a jet mixer or RCM. Liner cementing slurries require fluid loss additives to control the extent of cement filter cake build-up in the typically nilrow annulus. It is not uncommonto cementa 5" OD liner

62

. is below 7" casinginside a 6 U2" drilled hole; the resultingannularclearance only 9116" Problems that are sometimes attributed to premature set of the cement during liner cementingare usually bridgrngof cementfilter cakein the annulus. A cementslurry having API HT/FIP 30-minutefluid loss rate of 50-100ML is suitablefor liner cementing. The most difficult slurry design problem for a cement intended for a long liner at great depth is to incorporatesufficient thickening time to place the cement and reversecirculate any excesscementslurry from the well. Sticking the drill pipe in a deep well is a cardinal sin, yet the cement should not be over retarded, which would result in undue delay in snengthdevelopmentof the cementleft in the lap region (which can be >100"F cooler than the shoe). The only solution to this problem is careful pre-job laboratory testing using realistic BHCTs and BHST's. To addressthe strengthdevelopmentat the top of the liner higher than 3000 problem, it has beenreportedby someinvestigatorsthat curing pressures psi (standardfor the API compressivestrength tests) hastensthe onset of measurable srrengrh. If a laboratorydoing slurry designfor a long, deep liner has the capability of curing compressivestrength specimensat pressuresin excessof 3000 psi, pressures to corresponding actualhydrostaticat the top of the liner can be employed. H. CementEvaluation The functionsof a primary cementsheathare to sealthe annulusand provide mechanical of supporrto rhe casing. Ideally, evaluationmethodswould provide a direct measure the are performanceof thesefunctions,but actually most of the evaluationtools and techniques more or less indirecr 1. Indirect Indications survey (describedin the cementchemisurysection)used A cement-toptemperature in conjunction with annularvolume calculatedfrom an open-holecaliper log, taken before casing was run, can provide some indication of mud displacement efficiency. For example, if the primary cementing job were conducted with essenriallyfull retums and the indicatedlength of the primary cementcolumn is 15amountof mud was that a substantial ZAVo bnger than calculated,it can be assumed bypassed. The cement bond log (CBL) is widely used to provide a measureof cement device which provides coveragein the annulus. The CBL is an electro-acoustic

63

measurements:signal travel time, casing signal amplitude and total three separate is energy display. The travel time measurement used to assurethat the casing amplitude signal is accurate,i.e., it is an indicator of tool centralization. The total energydisplay is usedto define coupling to the formation and it also provides other detail with regard to annular coverage, i.e., if the collars are not bonded, "'W" signanrresare found within the total energy display. Casing characteristic of signal amplitudeis a measure the attenuationof the acousticsignal, which varies (26) directly with the bonding of the casing by the cement sheath. Fitzgerald, s1a| have developeda methodof using the information from the casing amplitudecurve to calculate annular fill of cement,which in turn can be used to estimatethe zone isolation achieved by cementedcasing of a given size. An example of this calculation is shown by Figure zl.L Q6).

21.1 Figure

o
t a
ll

a t
I

a t

I Ctrcx?

According to information found in Reference26, l0 feet of 7" casing with 807o intervals cementis sufficient to isolatezones;largercasingrequireslonger cemented to achieveisolation. It is evident that the CBL provides considerableinformation,

64

but it must be consideredan indirect cementevaluation tool, as it does not address annular hydraulic sealdirectly.

2"

More Direct Indications More direct cement evaluation methods actuaily monitor flow behind pipe by logs. cased-hole using appropriate or measuringtemperature noise anomalies When unwantedgas entersa cementedannulusthere will be a cooling anomaly at the point of entry due to expansionof the gas. As the gasmoves uphole, a heating gas anomaly will be observedas the geothermally-heated from downhole moves to cooler portions of wellbore. Unwanted water normally moves downhole after entering a cementedannulus,resulting in a cooling anomaly moving down. A (22). This radial differcntial temperature(RDT) tool has been developedby Cooke in tool utilizes either one or two temperanre sensors the samehorizontal plane. In unwanted use the tool is positionedin the casingat the elevationof the suspected flow and rotated. Logs taken using this tool provide information regardingboth the (or of presence absence) unwantedflow and the location (depth and azimuth) of unwantedflow. The laner information is useful in repairing the well.

#utilizesasensitivemicrophoneusedinconjunctionwith noiselevel is low, i.e., with amplificationand other electronics.If the background "hear" the enuryof unwantedfluid into the well shut-in,the noiselogging tool can the wellbore. Flow of gasis more easily detectedthan flow of water.

3.

Definitive Indications the Statedbriefly, if a cementjob accomplishes intendedpurpose,it is considered job includeprotectionof the casing, of successful.The intendedpurpose a cement pressure containment,and achievingdesiredproduction(or injection) panerns. For the cement sheathto protect the casing from external casing corrosion it must reachsufficient elevationin the annulusto cover any potentially corrosive aquifers. using a cement-loptemperature The location of the top of cementcan be established log or CBL. integrity test Fotlowing the cemenringof surfaceand intermediatecasinga pressure (PIT) of the casingshoeis usually conducted. Procedureis to drill the float and the

65

shoe plus a small amount of additional hole. Sufficient surface pressureis then applied so the pressureat the shoe is at least equal to the maximum hydrostatic pressureexpectedto be imposedon the shoebefore the next casing string is set. If the required pressureis reached,drilling proceeds. If the required surfacepressure cementing. cannot be anained,the shoemust be repairedby squeeze cementing,they may be testedusing After perforationshavebeensealedby squeeze formation pressure. This is accomplishedby swabbingfluid from the well bore so formation pressurewill be imposed across the squeezedperforations. If one or more of the perforations had been plugged with mud or other well bore fluid, the cementing operation can be repeated. plug will be expelled, and the squeeze The most definitive tesr of the primary cementing of a production well is a productiontest. If the well producesthe expectedfluid(s) at anticipatedrates,it can be assumedthat the primary cementjob is successful. If the above described just describedshould be conditions are not met, someof the diagnostic procedures applied so a decision can be made as to whether or not squeezecementing is needed. if The primary cementingof an injection well is consideredsuccessful, the injected fluids are confined to the intended target interval. Diagnostic techniquesused to "Slugs" of and radioactive surveys. verify that suchis the caseinclude temperature short half-life gammaray emitting isotopescan be included in someof the injected fluid and a gamma-raylog can then be run. If an open-hole,natural gamma-raylog is availablefor the well, it can aid in interpretationof the log describedabove. I. AnnularGasFlow Mitieation Annular Gas Flow (AGF) can be defined as gas or gas pressureat the surface some time after primary cementing. AGF can also occur downhole as interzonal flow; this type flow log. Most often AGF is observedt2-I6 hours can be detectedusing a noiseor temperature after the primary cementingoperation;it hasbeenobservedmuch earlier (as soon as the top wiper plug bumped)or much later (daysafter the primary job). AGF is a costly and even dangerousproblem. It can lead to safety hazardsfor both men cementing)is difficult and costly. The most serious and material. Repair (by squeeze economicimpact can be loss of reserves.

66

I
l

of for Reasons Occurrence AGF Cement startsthe settingprocesswith the formation of a gel coating on the cement of by grainsas soon as they are contacted water (seeFigure 2). As a consequence this, the cement slurry developshigh gel strengthwhen quiescent. During this sameinitial setting period the cement undergoessome shrinkage;it later rebounds and eventually shows some volume expansion. The early time shrinkage is 22,which was takenfrom Reference28. illustrated by Figr.rre

Figne22
l - ?

I|

9 .

c u o = .
ttl I

ct
= E t o (,

E r
F Il J

Lrgrnd
r!lt c!rtxt

I l =

!:.-r-1!:.-._ | !

o
l2 rf
t 7CC.

2a

T I M EI N H O U R S
-amad thnna ddrogd|.rn

The data of Figure 22 representcombined internai and external volume changes. for External volume shrinkageis 1.5-2.07o most cements. Becausethe cement for slurry is also undergoinggellation,it cannotslump to compensate the shrinkage and full hydrostaticpressureof the fluid column is not transmittedto the bottom of (29), made the hole. This allows gas to enter the annulus. Cooke, sg al of measgrements annulartemperatureand pressurein sevengas wells by attaching to sensors the exterior of the casingat different elevations. Data were ransmined to the surfaceusing a logging cable,which was aiso attachedto the exterior of the were madewhile the casing measurements and temperature casing. The pressure was being run, the mud/hole conditioned,the cementpumped and until the cement

67

initial set. Thedatafrom onewell is shownin Figure23 which wastaken attained from Reference29. Figure23

th

6 6

z
o

? 5
. . 4 cc
@

g 3
a

* ^ ; m 5 r8o
S 16{)
ul

= o ul
cp
1 ctstl

3 140
F 120

(9

SENSOR NO. DEPTFI(FTI IRKBI

lan 1200 llm l(m TIME. MINUTES 5 6 2 3 4 6909 5488 4787 463:1 3txl6

1rm

Annular gressure and tomperature - Well A

from Figure 23 that the hy&ostatic pressurestarteddropping as soon It is apparenr as the top plug seated;the prcssurerecordedat each sensoreventually droppedto a value below the equivalentmud weight (EMW) requiredto preventgasinflux. It is also of interest to consider the annulartemperaturccuwes. The inflection point in curye (occurring about 1000minutes after the first joint of casing eachtemperature the was run into the well) represents principal exothenn of the cement;it occurs initiai set. In the sevenwell program it was observed when the cementachieves that the wells, which did not show AGF were those indicating this principal exothenn at about the sametime or before the annularpressuredropped below the EMW neededto control gas. In other words, do re! over retard the cement used for a gas well. If gas entersthe annulus while the cement has little or no strength and high permeability,it flows upward and expands. As a result, the cementsheath is renderedpermanentlydefective. High cement slurry filtration rate makes a bad situation worse in that loss of water from the cement slurry resuits in more shrinkageand more gellation. In extremecasesof high fluid loss a cementfilter

68

cake

"packer" can form in the annulus and make transmission of hydrostatic

pressureimpossible. AnothermechanismforAGF is relatedto the occurence of free water from a slurry used to cement a deviated well. In such a well free water will migrate to the top side of the hole (usually one foot or less in a deviated well) and form a coherent uncemenredchannel for the entire length of the cement sheath. Webster and Eckerd (30) conducteda laboratory study utilizing inclined models which indicated that gas readily flowed through free water channels.

2.

Preventionof AGF A variety of materialsand methodshas beenconsideredand tried in the attempt to solve the AGF problem. These materials and methods are discussedbelow going from least successfulto most successful. In an attempt to increasehydrostatic pressuredownhole, weighted cement mix downhole water has beentried. Cooke, et al(29)found that the hydrostaticpressure can fall to valueslower than would be exertedby a column of mix water, regardless of mix warer densiry. This behavioris illustrated by Figure 24 ftom Reference29.

Figpre24 6 4
G

o z
v,

SENSOR DEPTHS.FEET

PING COMPLETED

o F 2
; E

4e.

1326

A 1
UJ E G

EMW=2.5 LB/GAL

130 '.110 o, E 100 80

s 120

Hso
2 3 T I M E- H U N D R E D S F M I N U T E S O

69

the The usualmethodof increasing densityof the mix water was by dissolving of NaCl in the mix water. Sincehigh concentrations NaCl retardthe set of of of because overretardation the can this cement; approach becounterproductive cement. vibrationof thecasingto breakthe gel structurcof the cementslurry in Mechanical and in has the annulus beenevaluated thelaboratory in thefield. It wasfoundthat 1000- 1200 vibrationof anythingotherthanshortcasingstrings(approximately the was and feet)wasbothexpensive diffrcult. This approach not alwayseffective; is needis to vibratethe cementnot the casing. The timing of the operation very after the cementhasstartedto bond the casing, critical; if vibrationis attempted vibrationwill becounterproductive. slurrycompressible. havebeenusedto renderthecement additives Gas-generating therehave been have beencited for this approach, Although somesuccesses whenthe pumpingof the problems. To be effectivethe gasmustbe generated is slurry is stopped- not roo long beforeor after. Timing of the gasgeneration is hydrogen the gaswhich is generated difficult to achieve.Because somerimes therehas beensomeconcernregardingsafety,particularlywhen appreciable volumesof hydrogenhave beenproducedto the surface. The most serious by have beenexpressed thosewho have this process concerning reservations cement pressures downholefollowing the pumpingof compressible measured pressure. of in and slurries foundno improvement thetransmission hydrcstatic an containing slurries AGF for cement have siled 8)in prcventing Successes been while thecement permeability very low values to the whichrcduces cement additive cited for this additiveare is liquid, in transitionanda setsolid. Otheradvantages lessshrinkage(seeFigure 22),low filtration rate and betterbonding. The D-S is for (Dowell-Schlumberger) designation thisadditive D 600. AGF hasbeenby the useof what I in successs preventing Historically,gleatest are of approach".Many of the features this approach referto asthe "conventional job optimumresults,whethergas to applicable anyprimarycement andwill achieve "conventional are approach" as of is a potentialproblemor not. The elements the follows:

70

with mill varnish. well usedin a gas-prone shouldnot be coated The casing effect of mill varnishon bondingis shownby the dataof The deleterious 18. TableVItr, whichwastakenfrom Reference TableMtr of BondingProperties VariousPipeFinishes
API Cement: ClassA waler content:5.2 gal/sack 80oF Curingtemperature: Curinglime:24 hours size:2 in. inside4 an. Casing EondStrength
Hydraulic (psig) Type of Finish Pipe Stel 74 200 ro 250 New (mill varnish) New (varnishchemically 104 300 to 400 removecl) 123 500 to 700 New (sandblasted) 141 500 to 700 Used (rusty) resinNew (sandblasted, 2,4oo r , 1 0 0t o 1 , 2 0 0 sand coated) Plastic Pioe 210 79 Filamentwound (smooth) 270 (rough) 99 220 81 Centrilugallycast (smooth) (rough) 101 310 Shear (psi) Gas (psig) 15 70 150 150 400+

is of Sincedisplacement drilling mud from holeirregularities very difficult, the attemptshouldbe madeto drill a uniformhole. In somewells this can 't by bebestachieved drilling mudchemistry. t4''r practices shouldbe job, bestpossible muddisplacement During thecement employed. This includescontrol of drilling mud propertiesto minimize gel fluid loss rate and time dependent strengthand the useof a preflush. The preflushand cementslurry shouldbe pumpedas fast as possible, without inducingloss of returns. The pipe shouldbe cennalizedand moved.

short well slurryusedin a girs-prone mustnot beoverretarded; The cement transitiontime is needed.Thc 30-minuteI{T/HP API fluid lossrate (tested shouldbe in the50-100ml range. to according AppendixF of Reference2) shouldbe as low as well, free wateroccuTence For a deviatedgas-prone to shouldbe madeaccording the API possible.Freewatermeasurements amounts 2); M free operating watertest(Appendix of Reference acceptable to according Section arein the rangeof 0-2.5ml. If a slurryis designed

7L

"breakout" excessive (tested to according is II.E. of this text andfreewater to can AppendixM),1-2Vo(bwc) bentonite be added thedry blendwith no in increase mix water. Usedin this way the bentoniteis corresponding "blotter" and the resultingslurry will probably functioningas a chemical propemies. haveacceptable
o

from the surfaceappliedto the annuluscan be effective. Pumppressure The amountof permitted pump pressureis limited by lost circulation shouldbe appliedimmediatelyafter the top wiper Pressurc considerations. until after the principal exothermof the plug is bumpedand maintained it cementhasdeveloped; will be found that the afiiountpumpedis usually verified that surface of about l.S%o the cementvolume. Cooke,st al (29) downhole. Figure25 was takenfrom can annularpressure be transmitted (time scale) indicatewhensurface 29; Reference theanowson theabscissa pressurc applied. was Figure25

smo

E**
u,l

v, U'

$ amo

Hzom o
1m0
0 2fi)

r.

= 150 z,
u,l

100
19 15 16 17 18 O HUNDREDS F MINUTES
Annular pressure and temperatute - Well I

ry.

RemedialCementing Remedialcementingis informally defined as a well cementingoperationthat is not primary cementing. Remedialcementingis usedfor repair (both of tubularsand the primary cement

72

testingand connol of the production patternof a well. Two types of sheath)abandonment, cementing. in remedialcementingarediscussed this chapten plug cementingand squeeze

A.

PlueCementine A cementplug is a columnof cementplacedeitherin casingor in the openhole. use The first recorded of a cementslurry in an oil well wasthe dumpingof a 50shut sackplug in a well in the Lompocfield in Californiain 1903to successfully (l). wx1s1 off down-hsl6 partsof this sectionwill be the scope(uses)for plug in Described subsequent while encountered and (materials methods), problems and techniques cementing, plug cementing. performing l. of Scope PlueCementing Zonelsolation of plug is a commonandcosteffectivemeans isolating Seninga cement may be to shutoff water,recomplete zones. The intentof the operation higher(or lower by drilling throughthe plug),or to protecta low pressure (See job operation fracturing a zonebeforeperforming squeeze or hydraulic Figure26). Figrre 26 (FromReference 31) Plug for ZoneIsolation Cement

Testine The use of cementplugs in the testingof an explorationwell is a specific exampleof the use of this cementingtechniqueto achievezone isolation. Expendable exploration wells are often cased then potentially productive zonesare testedfrom the bottom up. After testingan interval a cementplug plugged and is placed over the perforationsand the well is, in essence, as abandoned it is tested. Lost Circulation Control When drilling-fluid circulation is lost during drilling, it is sometimes possible to restorecirculation by spotting a cement plug acrossthe lost circulation zoneand then drilling through the plug after the cementhas been allowed to set. Although some of the cement slurry may be lost to the formation, i.e., the thief zone, after the cement sets it will aid in consolidatingthe formation. (SeeFigure 26.I). Lost-circulationadditives are often included in lost-circulation cement plugs and, dependingon the natureof the lost-circulation problem, the density of the cementslurry may be reduced. g DirectionalDrillin g and Sidetrackin A plug of this type (often referred to as a whipstock plug) may be set in casingor openhole (seeFigure 27). Theseplugs are usedto aid in drilling around unrecoverablefish or to aid in deviating the wellbore to reach the of desiredgeologic objective. The success a whipstock plug dependson high compressivestrength; this requirement,in turn, places a premium on avoiding contaminationof the cementand proper slurry design. Plue and AbandonG and A) It is inevitablein the life of any well (dry hole or depletedproducingwell) that cementplugs will be usedto closethe well completely. Cementplugs help prevent zonal communicationand migration of any fluids that could contaminate underground fresh water sources. The requirements of

74

regulatory bodies concerning plugging and abandoningwell should be (SeeFigpre28). consulted

2.

Techniaues Plug Cementine BalancedPlue Method This is usually the method of choice; it is simple, requiring no specialized equipment,and any length plug desiredcan be placedusing this technique.

26.1 Figure 16) Grom Reference Control Plugfor Lost Circulation Cement

Figure27 (FromReference 31) Plug Whipstock

ffj=:-'--=--=. -:------ -_::-:-:

75

plug, the following relationshipmay be To calculatethe length of a balanced used: h= N C+T ,where

N = cu. ft. of cementslurry cementcolumn h = lengthof balanced C = cu. ft. per linear foot of spacebetweentubing (or drill pipe) and casing (or hole) T = cu. ft. per linear ft. of inside volume of tubing (or drill pipe) Example problem: Calculatethe length of a balancedplug provided by 100 sacksof nearClassA cementplacedthrough6.4lblft, 2-7 l9-inchtubing to the bottom of a 3500 ft. well casedwith 7-inch, 26 Lblft casing. Also, the fluid requiredto balance plug and calculatethe voiume of displacement the elevation of the top of the plug after the 2-7|8-tnch tubing has been withdrawn. 1. Calculatethe cu. ft. of cementslurry (N): Accordingto pageF-55 of the BJ ClassA cementmixed with 5.19 gallonsof waterper Decimal Book (32), sackof cementyields 1.17cu. ft. of slurry, then

100sksx l.L1 cu.ft. = 117cu.ft sk

2.

plug is calculatedfrom The length (h) of the balanced h= N C+T ,where

I N = 117cu.ft. (fromcalculation above) ft. cu. C = 0.1697 ft.Ainear (p. C-18of Reference 34) ft. cu. T = 0.0325 ft.Ainear

77

(p.A-7 of Reference 32) 117 cu ft.

117cu. ft.
('7(l 6^^+

or6n +.
3.

o . o 3 2 s + 0.2022 +

fluid requiredto balancethe plug can be The volume of displacement plug); thecapacity by: calculated 3500'- 579'=2921' (topof the balanced 32) of 6.4\blf\2-7lS-inch nrbingis 0.0058bblVft. (p. A-7 of Reference bbls/fr = 16.9bbls 2921ftx 0.0058

4.

of Thecalculation thetop of theplug afterthetubingis withdrawnfollows. is The linearft./cu. ft. of 26lbs, 7-inchcasing givenas 4.6549ft./cu.ft. (p. A-10 of Reference and 32) x 117cu. ft. (1.,abovc) 6549ft./cu.ft. = 545'and 3 5 0 0 ' -5 4 5 ' = 2 9 5 5 ' .

the This informationcan be usedto determine length of 2'7/8" tubing to be to reverse circulating cleanup, i.e.,545ft. of tubing. withdrawnbefore DumpBailerMethod to For the dumpbailer methodthecementslurry is conveyed the desireddepthin a durnpbailer run on wireline. The ccmentis dumpedby openingthe bonomeither is down. This method or with a squibcharge by repnring a bottomdisk by sening plugs cement holesat shallowdepth,although cased in normallyused low pressure cement feet havebeenserasdeepas 12,000 with a dumpbailerby usingretarded bridge basket, plugis dumped bottom,a limit plug,cement off slurries.If a cement plug or sandpack can be usedat the bottomof the desiredplugginglocationto this preventmigrationof the plug (SeeFigurc30). As advantages, methodoffers goodcontrol of plug settingdepthand it is relativelyinexpensive.Its principal in slurry thatcanbedumped a singlebailer limitation is the smallvolumeof cement run.

78

Figure30 (FromReference 33) DurnpBailerMethod

WIRELINE

DUMP BAILER

/MECHANICAL ELECTRICAL RELEASE DUMP

79

The Two-Plug Method The nno-plug methd utilizes a plug above and below the cement slurry, and a wiper plug catcher in the bottom of the driil pipe (or tubing). The bottom plug precedesthe cement slurry cleaning the drill pipe (or tubing) and isolating the cement slurry from the wellbore fluid (SeeFigure 31). When the bottom plug reachesthe catcher,it is pumpedout into the wellbore. The cementslurry is placed at rhe desired location in the well and the top plug seatsand seals the top of the catcher assembly;this event is signalled by an increasein surface pressure. The work string is then pulled up so the lower end of the tail pipe is at the calculated depth of the top of the cementplug. Additional pressurecausesa sliding sleeveto open a flow path through the plug catcher to the bore of the work string, allowing the work string to be cleanedby reversecirculation. The two-plug systemis particularly suited to placing plugs at substantialdepth where displacement volumes are difficult to calculate, and the opportunity for of contaminationof the cementby wellbore fluids is great. The obvious advantage cementplug. The this techniqueis to enablepreciselocation of an uncontaminated are obvious disadvantages complexity and expense.Top and bottom wiper plugs pipe in conjunctionwith the balancedcement used in open-ended are sometimes "modified' balanced problem. [n this plug techniqueto mitigatethe contamination plug method,the wiper plugs arepumpedout of the work string and remain in the cementplug.

J.

in It should be observedthat althoughthe problemsdiscussed the following section (migration, contamination,and cement sturry design) are interrelated,they will be sub-sections. in addressed separate Misation If a cement plug is placed off-bonom and if the cement slurry density is substantially different from that of the wellbore fluid, the cement plug will move before setoccurs. The plug cementslurry is usually heavierthan the wellbore fluid (water, hydrocarbons, and/ormud), and the tendencyfor the cementslurry to move can be minimized if the slurry densityis reduced- Cementslurry densityreduction

80

Figure 31 16) from Reference Sub Tell-Tale Catcher Operation

123. 5-

RUNNING IN BOTTOM PLUGLANDED CLE.ANING ALUMINIUM OF TAILPIPE TOPPLUG LANDED REVEFSE CIRCULATION PULLING AND OUT

81

is usually accomplishedby using an additive that permits the useof a high water to solids ratio. A low density slurry of this type developslower compressivestrength in neat slurry; this is an advantage a lost-circulationplug and a than a corresponding disadvantage in other cement plugs. Also, as noted in the following "contamination"section,the compressivestrengthdevelopmentof a high water ratio cement slurry is more sensitive to contamination. It has been reported by Smith, s1al.,4) thar higher viscosity cement slurries are more likely to establisha (35) stable interface with mud and are less prone to miglate. A paper by Beirute describesa computation method that can be used to define the cement rheology interface. The interface between many desired to maintain a stable mud,/cement muds and cements shows a natural tendency toward gellation; this behavior is beneficialin this application. A cement plug that is stableinitially (as it is being deposited)is more likely to remain stablethan a plug depositedunder unstableconditions is to becomestable. Unfortunately, the conventional techniquefor depositing a balancedplug leads to initial instability. The cement slurry exits the work string moving in a vertical downward direction, then it must undergo a completereversalin direction of flow and move vertically upward into the annulus. The oppornrnities for mixing of cement slurry and wellbore fluids, as well as continued downward movement, of reportedimprovement in cement the cement slurry are obvious. Smith, et. al., (34) and in the field by useof a diverter tool plug stabiliry in both laboratoryexperiments (seeFigure 32). This tool assurcsthat initial flow of cement slurry from the work string will be horizontal, insteadof verticai and downward. In its simplest form, the diverter tool is a bull-pluggedwork string with enoughholesdrilled in the lower end of work string so that the availableareafor flow will be equal to that of the bore of the work string. Contamination There is alwaysthe potentialfor contaminationof the cementslurry by the wellbore fluids in any plugging operation. A relatively small volume of cement slurry is placed in a large volume of potentially contaminatingfluid, and displacement mechanicsare less favorable for plug cementing than for primary cementing. of Contamination a cementplug can be of two types: in a plug placedoff bottom of substantialreplacement the cementslurry by the residentwellbore fluids can occur (this is relatedto the migration problem),or the cementslurry can mix with

82

Figure32 (From 34) Refercnce DiverterTool

4 Holes Phased 45" 4 Holes

Bull Pfug

strengthby effect on cementcompressive the wellborefluids. The deleterious 18. on mixing with mudis illustrated page47'48by TableVtr from Reference A than to B Referringto TableVII cement is morercsistant contamination cement of of because its highercementto waterratio not because slurry density,per se, (increasingslurry density by the use of weightingmaterialis actually counter productivein this rgard).

83

Some measures which minimize mud contamination of cement plugs are summarizedbelow: Placeopen-holecementplugs in gaugesectionof the hole, if possible. Condition the mud prior to cementing. Centralize the work string. Rotate is the work string while displacingwith cement,when cementdisplacement complete,stop pipe movemenl Wiper plugs can be usedaheadof and behind the cementsiurry. Do not use over-wateredcement slurries. Use either specified water to solidsratio or lessthan specifiedwater to solidsratio. o Batch mix the cemcntslurry. Use flush aheadof and behind the cement. When a cemenrplug is depositedusing the balancedplug technique,a flush is often used aheadof and behind the cement slurry, unless the wellbore fluid is water or low-density,lightly-treatedwater basemud. Water is the flush of choice unless more fluid density is required and/or the wellbore fluid is oil-based mud. In the latter instance(oil-basedmud), a compatible,formulatedflush, i.e., BJ's MCS-2, is often used. The volumes of the post-and pre-flushes,must be selectedso the pre-flush will reach the sameelevation in casing/work string annulus as the postflush in the work string,when the plug is balanced.For example,referring to the problem found in the balancedplug section,if a 10 bbl water pre-flush had been used,the length of the pre-flush in the 2-7l8-inchtubing x 7-inch casing annulus cementplug would be abovethe balanced

10bblsx 33.0761 = 331ft., _t_

bbl

(p.c-18, Reference 32) of

and to balance,what volume of water post-flush wouid be required? The capacity of 6.4 lbs/ft of 2-7|8-inchtubing is given on p. A-7 of Reference32 as 0.0058

84

bbls/ft.,and bbls/ft= 1.9bbls. 331fr x 0.0058 SlurryDesien The basicsof slurry designwere coveredin detail in a precedingchapter. With slurry designshouldstartwith a neatcement specificrcferenceto plug cementing, mixed using the specifiedamountof water. Cementslurry propertiesare then of varieddepending thercquirements the specificoperation. on usinga retarder or slurryshouldbe adjusted, time of a plug cementing Thickening job to if acceleraton needed, estimated time plus 30 minutes. Over-retardation when to shouldbe avoidedasthe slurry is susceptible migntion andcontamination retarder accelerator or it is in a fluid state.The thickcningtime testusedto establish of and temperameenvironment the shouldsimulatethe pressure requirements job acnral ascloselyaspossible. and strength slurry densityof a lost circulationplug areoften Both thecompressive simultaneously, Both of these slurrymodificationscanbe accomplished, reducedadditive such as bentoniteor sodium by the use of a high watr requirement metasilicate @J'sThrifty mix). plug of strength a whipstock/sidetracking shouldbe as high as The compressive for cementcompressivestrength possible. The preferrcdtechnique increasing i.e., is by that beyond developed neatcemnt by addinga dispenant, BJ'sD-31. A (bwc)permitsthe slurryto of usedat concentrations about0.75percent dispersant ratiosthanis possiblewith neatcement. The to be mixed at lower wate,r cement to by can strength be seen reference TableVtr. compersive effect of this on cement slurrydensity; ratio alsohastheeffectof incleasing Reducing waterto csment the on depending the application. Smith,et or this may be an advantage disadvantage that a dispersantnot be used to lower the consistency al., (34)recourmend (viscosity,yield point,etc.)of a cementslurry,which would occurif a dispenant of were usedin the absence a reductionin water to cementratio. Statedmore for generally,low viscosityslurriesare not rccommended any cementplugging (bwc) frac sandhasbeenaddedto cementto operation. On occasion,l5-20%o "toughen plug". Thereis no evidence (laboratory field) thatanydiluent(frac or the

85

sand,weight material,etc.) doesanythingto the set cementexceptto lower the plug. for whichis undesirable a whipstock strength, compressive 4. Conclusions of Cementplugsprovidea simple,cost effectivemeans performinga variety of operations. drilling andcompletion (balanced plug, dump bailer and two-plugmethod)are techniques Threegeneral for and usedfor placing cementplugs. Each has advantages disadvantages a particularapplication. are in encountered plug cementing migration,contamination The principalproblems in andimproperslurry design. Eachof theseis addressed the text B. Squeeze Cementing involvespumpingcementslurry throughan openinginto a cementing Squeeze but is targetvoid. The opening usuallya perforation, it canbe a split or corrosion holein casingandit canbe a fracturein theformationor primarycementsheath.ln filter cakeformstheinitial seal,so the mostsqueeze cementing operations, cement is squeeze cementslurryfiluation behavior very important. 1. Cementing Scoge Squeeze of for: is cementing used Squeeze i.e., that has channeled, byRepairof a primarycementsheath o passed mud. o o ops. of Augmentation cement Elimination or rcduction of water or gas intrusion into an oilproducing interval. casing. Repairofdamaged

86

to in Pluggingzones an injectionwell that arenot intended receive injectionfluids. (P&A) of depletedor watered-out Pluggingand abandonment producing intervals.

Techniques Cementing Soueeze to according how thecement are techniques classified cementing Squeeze imposed on to slurryis directed thetargetintervalandthe level of pressure the slurry. the cement slurryacross of consist spotting Techniques The Bradenhead plug. The mrgetinterval by use of a workstringto place a balanced closedin and squeeze workstringis pulled out of the plug, the annulus is by of prcssure applied.This sequence operations illustrated Figure33, is 33. takenfrom Reference pressure limited by is allowablesqueeze technique Using the Bradenhead burststrength.Also, this methodis suitedto casingstringand wellhead wellshavingonly oneintervalto be squeezed. with whichdispenses a squeeze is A Bullhead squeeze a rypeof Bradenhead work string. The cementslurry is pumpeddirectly into the casingat the with thehopethatit will find andenterthetargetinterval. The lack surface inherentin this methodare for of control and chances contamination obvious. (aisoreferred to Packer employeithera drillablepacker techniques Squeeze packer(shownasFigure34 from Reference or as a retainer) a retrievable are 18). Two typesof drillablepackers illustratedin Figure35 alsofrom 18. Reference and connol over slurry placement -offers from high squeeze casing stringandwellhead isolation theentire of achieves packer relativeto thetargetintervalis pressures. location a squeeze of The important. If placedtoo high in the wellbore,a relativelylargeamountof the wellbore fluid enters target intervalaheadof potentially contaminating

87

33 Figure Technique Squeeze Bradenhead

SPOT CEMENT

APPLY SOUEZE PRESSURE

RF/ERSE CIRCULATE

-Schematic of Bradenheadsqueeze technique normally used on low pressure formations. Cement is circulated into oface oot"n Oiitt pipe (teft), then wetlhead,-or BOP, is closecl icenieri-"no squdeie iresCure is apptied. Reversecirculating ihrougn perlorations (right) removgs excess cement' or plug can be drilled out-

88

Figure34 Packer Squeeze Retrievable

89

Figure35 Packer Drillable Squeeze

Slldlng Vblve

Popett\hlve

the cement slurry. If placed too close to the target interval, any tendency toward casing collapse, prompted by high squeezepressure,can make removal of a rerievable packer difficult if not impossible. For most wells a retrievablepacker shouldbe set 30-60 feet abovethe perforations. A retrievable packer is best suited to an operation that involves the squeezingof more than one interval in a well. Since a retrievablepacker is not drilled (or drillable) following a squeezejob, it can reduce the rig chargesfor an operation. On the other hand, since a retrievable packer is not easily drilted it should not be usedif the economic impact of drilling an inadvertently stuck packer could be great. Drillable packersincorporate a

90

in this can be an advantage preventingflowback checkvalve assembly; job. following a squeeze job, utilizing a packer,is a particularly cementing A circulationsqueeze fluid behindpipe. For a effectivemethodof stoppingthe flow of unwanted the the circulationsqueeze packeris locatedbenveen productioninterval 'the unwanted at established the sourceof perforationsand perforations 16' by flow, asshownschematically Figrue35.1,from Reference

35.1 Figurc Perfo'rations Bewecn Recementing

(usuallywith water)by pumpingdown the work Circulationis established up string, throughthe bottom pcrforations, throughthe primary cement annulus. and into the work string/casing out sheath, the top perforations slurry; after the cementslurry has The wateris thenfollowed by thecEment the pulledto above out is the beenpumped, work'string stung of thepacker, by top of the cementplug in the casing,cleaned reversecirculation,and water' beinga penetrating prcssure applied. In someinstances is squeeze fluid, will enter the lower interval and not communicateto the upper perforations. Cementslurry is not a penetratingfluid, and in this will circumstance often circulatewhetherwater did or not. The HTA{P in to slurryshouldbecontrolled around100m1 filter lossrateof thecement

91

API, so the entirechannclwill be invadedby cementand to 30-minutes preventstickingthe work string with cementfilter cakeoppositethe top should slurryusedfor a circulationsqueeze Also, thecement perforations. reason. for time (ob timeplus 1-2hours) thesame haveamplethickening

3.

Hieh Pressure

squeeze : High pressure is One misconception that on is cementing based two misconceptions. gnins enterthe formationmatrix,theotheris thatwhenthecement cement as which seryes an fracturesthe formationit forms a horizontalpancake effectivebarrierto verticalflow. Actually, cementgrainswill not entera formation matrix having a permeabilityof less than 100 Darcies. On slurrylosesfiltrate to permeable fonnation;cement a encountering porous, the formation and depositsa filter cake on the formation face. If the pressure differentialis high enough,the formation will fracture and the if will enterthefracturc.The fracnre will be horizontal andonly if cement pressure, conditions is the fracturingpressure gfeaterthanthe overburden squeeze thatapplyat very shallowdepths.Theresultof mosthigh pressure 16). jobs is depicted Figure36 (fromReference by cement "wings" Aside from the fact that putting cementinto vertical fracture any awayfrom the wellboredoesnot accomplish usefulresult, extending include: an excessive cementing squeeze of disadvantages high pressure amountof cementis requiredand thereis the hazardof openingup flow in and pathsthat will be difficult to access seal. The only siruation which is in cementing excessof fracturepressure justified is when squeeze that the workingin drilling mud. Thereis thc hope,in sucha situation, away from the wellbore and cementwiil then mud will be transmitted function. performits intended 4. less than Low PressureSqucezeCementingis performedat pressures formationfracturepressure.
It is not intended to place cement in the formation. When squeezingperforations using the low pressurctechniquethe rate of cementfilter cake deposition,

92

Figure36

Htgh pressure techntque. vertrcal fracture gener' ated by htgh pressure squeeang.

which in turn is rclatedto the HTAIP API fluid lossrateof the cementis way by Figure37 (from in very important.This is demonstrated a general 16). Reference
There are two potentialproblemswith extremelyhigh cementfiltration rates for low pressure squeezecementing of perforations. The most fluid conductive perforation(s) will be treatedinitially, and if that perforation is nearthe top of the interval, and if a high fluid loss rate cementslurry is used that perforation(s)will be the only one treated. The other potential problem is related to sticking the work string by excessivefilter cake build up. A techniquethat is employed in the field to encouragecoverageof the entire "hesitation". The pressureis increased perforatedinterval is referred to as to approach the predetermined maximum squeeze pressure, it is then allowed to bleed back a few hundredpsi, if it will, and the cycle is repeated prcssureholds for 5-10 minutesafter pumping is stopped. until the squeeze pressure a low pressure for In calculatingthe maximum permissiblesqueeze the squeeze, hydrostaticpressurcon the targetinterval, as well as the

93

Figure37

of Schematuc cement ftlrcr cake bw]d-up

must be considered.The needfor consideringboth applied surfacepressure pressures illustratedby the following calculation. Considera well with is at perforationsto be squeezed 8000 feet. The fracture gradient is 0.75 psi/foot; 6.50 lbs/foot 2 7/8" tubing will be used as work string. The cementslurry is 5 bbls of 15.8ppg classG cementcontaininga FLA (Fluid Loss Additive). The maximum bottom hole pressure(BHP) to avoid fracnring is: 8000 feet x 0.75 Psilfoot = 6000 Psi. The hydrostaticexertedby the cement slurry when it is in the bottom of the nrbing is:

ftlbbl = 864feet 5 bbl x 172.76 (for 6.5lb/ft2 7/8" tbg) lbs 864feetx .052psi gd x 15.8 = 710psi ft lbs eal

94

pressure If the well is loadedwith 9.0 ppg field brine thenthe hydrostatic bv exerted the brineis 8000'-864'=7136feet

psi x.052 7136 F#x e.o 333e S=

pumppressure would be Thusthemaximumallowedsurface psi 6000psi - 710psi - 3339psi = 1951 (4049psi) pressure is as Note: This calculation conservative the hydrostatic in slurrycompletely thetubing. Whentheplug with thecement is calculated in is balanced the bottom of the casing,the contributionto hydrostatic less. pressure theheaviercementslurry will be somewhat by 3. WellboFEnvironmentConsiderations job the cementing it is importantto consider In the planningof a squeeze will beplaced into environment which thecement The Fluids in the wellboreand the targetintenral,ideally, will be clean, reasonthat perforation fluid. The predominant water-based solids-free, someof the on are squeezes often unsuccessful first anemptis because perforations are pluggedwith mud. If mud has been (or is) over the perforations,perforation washing tools are sometimesused prior to job. As a minimum, in other than a clean performing a squeeze cementing the shouldprecede squeeze a environment, waterwash/preflush slurry. of parameter. The significance correctfiltration is Temperaturc animportant cementingslurry of rate and thickeningtime to the performance a squeeze is and temperature the most important parameter has beendiscussed, properties. controllingthese (panicularly a deepwell) is packer in Stickinga work stringor a retrievable and muchrcgretted longremembrcd

95

job cement is the whenperforminga squeeze informationneeded Pressure pressure sufficientto keepthe well undercontrol, but below that which would result in fracturingthe formation. By controlling both pump and prcssures BHP canbe kept in this range. the hydrostatic are FormationCharacteristics importantin the designand executionof a slurry job. Theadmonition the regarding controlof cement cement squeeze permeable formations.If into to fluid lossrateapplies perforations porous, the formationhas low matrix permeabilityand vugular porosity, then a slurry to may berequired avoidflow-backof thecement differentapproach is after the squeeze attempted.What is often done is to usea two-stage to the system, first stageis intended enterthe vugs cementing squeeze and/or naturalfracturesbut not invade the formation to an appreciable by is stage thenstopped the first stageandremainsnear extent;the second is etc. The first stage usually channel, the wellboreto sealtheperforations, bridgingmaterialor it containing of composed a high fluid lossratecement fluid lossrate is stage a moderate the may be a thixotropiccement; second slurry.
4.

Special OBerarions include: top of primary cement operations cementing Specialsqueeze shoe repair,liner top repairandcasing (TOC)augmentation, damage casing repair. In somewells TOC is below the desiredor requiredelevationeither by of design(in someolder wells) or because someproblemduring the primary cementingoperation. Cementcan be brought to the required the neartheexistingTOC andsqueezing the by elevation perforating casing "new" perforatiOnS are into the annulus.If the requiredamountof cement bridgeplug or sandbedwill berequiredto well off-bottoma cementbasket, a suchasthis is in essence primary prcventfall of thecement.An operation (no and job conditions pipe movement underadverse cement conducted in mud of unknownproperties the annulus). A waterpreflushshouldbe the will be encountered fluid loss permeable formations usedandif porous rateof thecementslurry shouldbeconuolled.

96

is (Split or Holed) Casingby squeeze cementing The Repairof Damaged with one exception.As thereis no needor similar to the aboveoperation intent to fill the entire availableannuluswith cementslurry, it is preferred throughthesplit imnrobilesoonafterit passes thatthecementslurry become or hole, and fluid loss rate control will be counterproductivein most plug shouldbe left in the a operations cement For instances. bothof these casingto be drilled afterWOC; thejobs shouldnot beoverflushed requiredpanicularly if the liner is in a Repairof a Liner Top is sometimes critical pan of the hole, i.e., oppositea gascap. Defectsin the liner top and regionareoftenof very smalldimensions a low fluid lossratecement should be used. Liners are often set at great depth and very high so are temprarures encountered slurry design for this application is important. casingstring or CasingShoeRepair If the shoeof a surface intermediate by fails a PIT, then repair is required- Repairis accomplished squeeze with cementing.Thereare two considerations regardto slurry designfor strength. high compressive shoukidevelop this operation.Fint, thecement the sincethe failureat the shoecanbe dueto formationfracturing, Second, cement slurry used for this purposeshould not extend the fracture. Therefore,the desiredcementslurry for this applicationwill be an to flui4 i.e.,havemoderate high fluid lossrate. inefficientfracturing 5. Considerations On-Site cementing The amount of cement slurry required for most squeeze with 10bblsor less is operations rclativelysmall. Manyjobs areperformed of slurry. Becausc this,batchmixing of thecementslurryis the of cement volumeto suit mixen havesufficient recirculating preferred method.Some slurries. themfor thebarchmixing of squeeze to tested the cerrentingshouldbepressure The work stringuscdfor squeeze can prcssurc. leakin thework stringdownhole resuitin A squeeze intended stickingof thepiPe.

97

6.

Job Soueeze Testing job in tested thc directionandto be After WOC thesqueeze should pressure in the level it will encounter service. For exampleif a casing shoeis to usingappliedpressure it cementing shouldbe tested by repaired squeeze in the samelevel aswasusedfor the PIT. If perforations a producingwell fluid they shouldbe testedby swabbing cementing by are sealed squeeze from the well so formation pressurewill be imposed across the of pressurc during the course thejob of perforations.Anainment squeeze a doesnot constitute testof thejob.

98

List of References t. SPEof AIME Volume4, HenryL. DohertySeries, Monograph Smith,D.K., Cementing, (publishers), Dallas(197 6). 10, API for API Specification MaterialsandTestingfor Well Cements. Specification 3rd Edition,July 1, 1986.

2.

3 , D o u g l e ,D .D .a n d H e l l a w e l l A .,' ' TheSolidificationofCem ent' ' ,@July 1977,pp. 82-90. 4. Ltd, Edward Arnold (Publishers) of Lea, F.M., The Chemistr.v Cementand Concrete, London(1976). Hunt, L.P., "Prediction of Thickening Time of Well Cementsfrom Blaine Air P e r n re a b i l i ty'', ,V o l .l 6 ,pp.190- 198' Per gamonPr ess Ltd., New York (1986). Cemenring Filtration Rateof Squeeze Pressure Brooks,F.A., "High Temperanrre/Iligh CorpusChristi, Texas, Symposium, Cementing of Slurries",Proceedings SPESqueeze March2, T976. "An DeviceFor NonD., Rao,P., Sutton, Childs,J., andCunningham,'W., Utrasonic paper Temperanrres Pressures", and at Testingof Oil-Well Cements Elevated Destnrctive 2I-24,1980. Dallas,September at SPE9283presented SPE-AIMEFall Meeting, of on W.K., "Effectof JetPerforating Bond Strength Cement", Goddrey, &gsacljs YoL.243. AIME (1963), From Dowdle, W.C., and Cobb,W.M., "Estimationof StaticFormationTemperatures Fall Meeting, October1974. at Well Logs",paperSPE4096prcsented SPE-AIME That Affect Cementing J.W.,"Key Factors M.A., andGalate, Wedelich, Goodman, H., New presented SPE/IADC Drilting Conference, at papetr SPE-IADC16133 Temperatures", 1987. March15-18, Orleans, \_ 11. (Publisher), Duncan, HalliburtonServices Tables. Cementing HalliburtonEnelish./Metric (1981). Oklatroma

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

99

lZ. 13. 14.

"Cementing andGasWells-Part World Oil, (1977). 5", Oil G.O.,andEllis, R.C., Suman, 17, February 1986. API Centralizers, Spec10D,3rdEdition, for API Soecification Casine and Verifying QualityCementBlends",PaperSPE 15576 Kunze,K.R., Obtaining 5-8' 1986. October New Orleans, presented SPEFall Meeting, at C., "BasicCementing Part8" Qll-4s!-Ges.JgulgAl,(]977). P., Parker, andClement,

15.

16.DowellSchlumberger,@,NovaCommunicationsLtd.'(Publishers), London(1984). lj. "Chemical Blends", Time Testfor Cement Thickening P.M.,andCobb,J.A., McElfresh, 5-7, 1981. Texas, October San presented SPEFall Meeting, Antonio, at paper SPE10220 MonographVolume 4, Henry L. Doherty Series,Revised Smith, D.K., Cementing, (1987). Texas, Richardson, Edition,SPEof AIME (Publishen), "Primary Cementing Optimizing for Maximum Haut, R.C., and Crook, R.J., ( Displacement", &J.!4QIL November,1980). in Mechanics Primary W.W., "Displacement Mclean, R.H.,Manry,C.W.,andWhitaker, 1967,P.215. Cementing", "Laboratory of Investigation Lightweight,Low-LowHaut,R.C.,and Crook, R.J., San Fall Meeting, presented SPE at paper SPE10305 Fluids", Spacer Viscosity Cementing 5-7, 1981. Antonio,October "Evaluation Cementing by Practices of Kline, W.E., Kocian,E.M., and Smith,W.8., at paperIADC/SPE 14778presented 1986 Measurements", Radiotracer Quantitative 10-12'1986. Dallas,February Drilling Conference, IADS/SPE Suman,G.O., and Ellis, R.C., (1977). "Cementing and GasWells - Part 6", @!L Oii

18.

19.

20.

2I.

22.

23.

100

24.

for Techniques Alaska's Liner Cementing G.H., "Improved Kolthoff, K.W., andScales, Meetingof presented 1982CaliforniaRegional at Bay Field", paperSPE 10756 Prudhoe March 24'26, L982. SPE,SanFrancisco, World Practical", During Cementing Lindsay,H.8., Jr., "New ToolsMakeLiner Rotation t65-174. 1981) Oil (October "Guidelines 90VoAccuracy in for D.D., McGhee,B.F., and McGquire,J.A., Fitzgerald, at Zone IsolarionDecisions",paper SPE 12141presented SPE Fall Meeting, San 5-8, 1983. Francisco, October

25.

26.

27.

(RDT)Logging- A NewTool for Detecting Temperatue C.E.,"RadialDifferential Cooke, Technology, June,1979. of Journal Petroleum Flow BehindCasing", andTreating for and Shrinkage Elasticity,A New Approach PA., andSault,P.H.,"Cement Parcevaux, at a Good ZonalIsolation,"paperSPE 13176presented 1984Fall Meeting,Houston, 1619, 1984. September "Field Measurements Annular hessure of Cooke,C.E., Kluck, M.P., and Medrano,R. prcsented 1982Fall at paperSPE11206 DuringPrimaryCementing", andTemperanre 26'29, 1982" September Meeting,New Orleans, Study", W.W., andEikerts,J.V., "Flow After Cementing Field andLaboratory Webster, 23-26,1979. Las September paperSPE8259prcsented atL979Fall Meeting, Vegas, "Plug Back Cementing", Drilline Technolog]'Series'Number ll23' producedand at of The Sewice, University Texas Austin. Extension by distributed Petroleum USA (1982). BJ Hughes, EgiEA!-B.eek,Copyrightby BJ Hughes, "Cementing andGasWells- Part7" Qil G.O.,andEllis R.C., Suman, WgddtQil,pp. 5765, (1977). Successful Methodof Setting G.B.,"Improved R.M., andHolman, Smith,R.C.,Beinrte, (November, pp. 1984), 1897-190a. Technology. of Plug",Journal Petroleum Cement
"Flow Behaviorof an Unset CementPlug in Place", 53rd Annual SPE of 1978. (October,1978),preprintNo. SPE-7589, AIME Fall TechnicalConference, Beimte, R.M.,

28.

29.

30.

31.

32. 33.

34.

\--

35.

101

II1I cnl
(hl

dl

U P

rJ)I AI

8 5
=
,

3
z

E 8 = E
E

ts t<

xxu
YY-I
a a C Q v v ^

14 o

x
X
A v
a a

rtk

d?

Of O V . ^ ^ L
v v A

>>tr

<<x

m 'a 9 Bl

Z l k &l iu Fll 't) Ft v

F !4

P
i tr

e \,'

sl >

8* 3
f5 3
* 9 3

E
E

27
co<

F q =H X d

2 nE

3, f
N E

F U

F r 5l i PI A : Ii o
f;l

4 t

q g x iv E u E F i Hr = E ;EO E Q
lll

) 2

Vt)
Ev,

z
t_

=?x

i ;

IEF E : <

x ax
F

E IF

x
I
N

(a <l

< B
J

xl ol

l s o t r t L
..i

x 2

tr
i

a
a\

e e R
tll;; FY v t\

h 6

.il\^;
d)

o z l u
F1l r! hrl

=l
>l

rll

xl r{t

<r i

ee E =a
rrl

7 ? = Xx x x x l E
d E H
cn< J
xxxEl llltI1Flt -i--ix

<r?5 x \O (n tl

" ) i N r i X
S t F !

z
r?l rYl

q i3 3 Htl q ; q 3 E
El 4

at e

a lt
i

H E;= 3
I

tE 2

3 ,P
!!i q/ r
- F

tJ1 (

x
i

x
o

di<

tr
'=

_
=

ftg rgffi=ess aaiF E' EL-ie Frxz -, aar ,e Fq? m"

El F;d EF H9 338 6ES
=l t--i-r r+ 9l-

-ai

z <a >*
v > Zit

<&

EFF EE HI -Eifi EHE EE *A 3fr8

g

zr 2= za

zz
Elca

xr-

tule *lE id!n2, E,EEF

G , A

E=E

E + z

< rrl
N F N X

IEEFiFi TE =IgF=FE=A

E>

X X

tr tr V =
\ J

f:lr
& d

**
F -

F F

9>s i d
r 2

otJ

J .

5
q)

Y
u

&
t4

,
I

'

F
J trl

Z
f i ,
F g

>

4
6

ET
H>

>'i

2
i t t

Por ciFl

3i
& &

t'1 I

qa

>>

r ' l H

r'r rJr F F L L

+
I

F F

(JQ
I

c-

A
6 J

09
A A XX

JJ

i;i

Ets

{ I'

3< = r 34 <
a \ v v l \ v I F

, l-,i

l,

\n

c2&'
E:E

8 X d (J
a

\o

e 3
Gl

f-

a EE AE,
- v

5
N

;-

I
O\h

ov

- v

r r

r 6 A

c\
a

;t (-)
=

&

aA

;? Ed ZA nqJ
3C 6V

F = OA

r o16

ii E B He^r* F 2 u l = s2 r * 2e t ir
AA9A ::J5 H =
F

^ I

qf

c o
5 qd

tt

ce

d a
=

a"r

t F

a
F

F 3 2 l ; - A i-A 7 l 4 Eg =A i

i.

tr'

rr

e Z
6

q F

<?

Aa_

Ze

Afr

{ rri i E1m g E E ii = . t = E ' 2 2 6

I I E E.

5a i xa3 gA 5A qeE i ?;? frs xsP

hiF i i l3 x HEHE F PP QrEru

x3= ;=, 2 ; E F: f i EEE E A 3 9 i -3

?
H

5F F*

n ?E-E a
Y F=i 6
E

= a H 1'=-1-e31 Et = = 2e :* l13E;
g i q 3 32 3 = H d A : a eH

FEq

U .g ' ? f r , . , (3 x 8J A l A =

(\

r EE 3 E E i F
t J
; , i
?

5 rcr
t i

d,
t Y

c.,Tl

FF

0<9 0 F F

O c.,On

i{>
F Z F

s
x

F F

=
r.f V

J
H

ct) t\ . 9 r J $

d&q U &

s e+

rtl

Y 19io
O=qt

3: i-tv v

? F

ze<

sai

a
(n

x
)

Jr.

= :r
i'l

q
: l? x

2=& =

! =

s* A A :

S!

4 a

o,3 SX o e c i
{{

<:

= :r
U

Ct

{-<

cl-ol

i ;i -

= ^
a' g

& & 4 (JOQ

2 <=r E < ,
rt Q=

e2

sE nEx=i
8a

- - :

e
H

!. ;;

F A

H HH

A 8A

??? ?
ddd d

Ei

?
\o

r8a F
5r t r t5 6 5 r= t
, J

Ei

Zoa e d h

e
x
J J

& i
+5
A A

+& q e q &

sq ; &F c &

?r ? $no qJ q6 , i ri io a <

,= F

c? 9 N A

8,;,;

Z - o

3a?z* E, 2H o

?a !

2?

E; THEET* UI* EtE3ErA EIXgE FE{ 3

E E EFE eF EF s8E E| s E l ! n 6 |
JI

il 93 =EHE5 Eg

2 o e F x B aX F a

E A2

AF;sri A,frfr ae lEr ?aE= HafiaEg 3E He; fls=l1

dl *
2 ol U I t l L A z Y
!!l

q
?

3 a
d q

3r .

'vt,
x

i 4 2 E

6 , r d dr ^' '' E Fr ? P r

o
6 e

,r. , t

crH E -

EH:Pxx

-iFi+q

= 5n

A 4 3H a EF E o 6

g *e *$ i , i S rr Y i , ???a k 3F3U<<
J

a
r

&
A

z (/,
J

-,8E,,, qq #FEH 4 FeFt t i i s F F E f r F d A EEx;#e ,Yi o \o

daC<Xl

H ".r
A-..

a q; n r . \ d
R

1 lxx
(\
o . t )J z z

Zt-

u2< OV

fi EHS
6E8RR
o\ Ix:fE

,^ n

XEEE F
o
J

.J_ J,^

v1

'' ("
i-< Z tt)

i
trl

oq
? J

f; HEP iHEEq i FFTTEilHd

d Fld assH
fr 3
2 l
z

t/, 4

-1

ov

.F -:!e 99cJo? A A A ^
H H H H

\, o ?
H

v ?a 1 "
A A

$ z

9 p

62 ZX6g? aH E r E _ ,t F qE : !1t ; e 56 F e 4 i q 5
'll <l
lIJ|

r {-l

4 v
o<
-

tL

X=

2 n EFH F
-=
<&
F

HE
fir
F

z/,

9:
H H

2=
,-\7

3 E E * E e E3 8 * g
z
& = z ( a A A

e ? =l I z'* J
=#

EPH hP3 EEE EE 7

c.t Etl
H H

d; frr,a eEd z2 aEfi &=z uu atr6 =au

Y'_lc1 0-i
J t t

E t? ?U

<l
AI -l FI

a zl
g

<l JI 3l OI

.x I 3
- *$ B { " P

9l FI
v)l
^l

JI

= Ez I

5 :

( ,rfifr ig z \zz 6=

69 Z

2l n

s E x E E =H

H trfi

il ee i Y

X
F.
I

4 2 A

,3 : F X tr
z

t H6g t
:/).t{
: * V

f. a H ^Xtr
:E
F

r E

y L

u ;

cd

H
d

Ll ill (t ttt

:tr
F

U' 14

x*
.t .t)

6
r

, t r V

3> x = x g eixq s f? x 4
E E dE E E 6
o'

J I

.E

i ;i e*frEE
,i tr an E ==
;r

< E

E, E

o Jr

-".

?
=

2
c
-

ox

J g Ec g H >H <ts gB dE Eg HE

u,

ft (,)
t!{

rtl

e
ts

-.t, (a

9u
4 4
-

E4 < d - ?

c/,

:'. t

UO

trtr

t,

X,r,Ag

-f z E i ;
>:

tiil uH= E id^ 3i ggx

r',. e

Hz = 3 E
30

F 3

Fg

-=3
F F F

-=

iflE ;HE*SEEa

aaB qqq
^^F
V V V

na
&&
H E

r . e -

gfi :HB ;eEa A $

gag=i: Far H=E iEEe Eia=1g=

= z r,!=J
?

3 e 1 F i3 ; 7 g

HHBU Z EiE

A=

PPE P' 3,8, H PEE

U '

= z

n
& t pi

l-

7
Z

trl

Og

. 3 H^ = = u, O.
&,L vr! =rrl QCJ

t-

.,8

aE

UE ZtA ,^
->=

Z |i
o 4 z
4

i 6
u
x
^

Z H
e
!
U

u2 i ftz
t
j

)z rrlr! i{?>

72 =>

:Errl t-U

;A# ?GJt dFa

F i

r 4
=

H E

xq> tl'l<7,

eeeee E

2=

I,E

E3
HP 9e
F F]

E z

rq>

zfr F<
z \z: ) 14
irI]

s=
eF{ <
U'I

ox :< 3z
./);
Fl la

?F
z:

19
lr) ct)

tah

u;>

vF4 x ;.
Jq,

z& =./,

t iadJ <
i! 7r;;

33H

?;P
FE3
zud
xsd
t Z l

ae?
J

trt'

tl;i?
;- i?i -

3 ct)

{ f 91< = i-

j=i
<*t!

< rrl:J
=

F f i

pzE

*o-b

Y!sx

.xExl
3i - :i Y + r?l = r J '

=fr>
H X zQ
Y)

3fr?

:PAEE g= F

Egz t<= cr1 lJ) -

e*alt 3fq 8 stttr 5 ;

fi:r
T-YA
<h J

E> k g <=
6XA

?z, t)

z=
ch

:f;H
5 z
lrl

> _!r.l (h