Polarized Light

Vectors
what they are and how they apply to light waves

Linearly polarized light

Vertical, horizontal, other directions Components of linear polarization in other directions Law of Malus and linear polarizers

Circular and elliptical polarization Unpolarized light

Random polarization

Production of polarized light Birefringence and crystals

waveplates

Vectors
Many physical quantities have both a strength (magnitude) and a direction
velocity (magnitude is speed), force, electric field

Objects with a strength and direction are called vectors

symbolized by an arrow with length of arrow indicating direction sometimes location of base of arrow is significant (where a force is applied) other times only the strength and direction are important Force applied by support

velocity

Force of gravity

Addition (or superposition) of vectors

More than one vector of the same type can act on one object (e.g. several forces)
In this case, vectors must be added

Vectors are added by placing the tail of the second vector at the tip of the first
result is the vector from the tail of the first to the tip of the second same result is obtained if first and second vector are reversed vectors to be added called components, sum called resultant Resultant vector Red vector added first

Blue vector added first

Components of a vector

The sum of the two forces on the car gives the resultant force The resultant is the component of the force of gravity along the ramp
The force from the ramp cancels the force of gravity perpendicular to the ramp

Components in any given direction

To find a vectors component in a given direction:
draw a line in the given direction through the tail of the vector drop a perpendicular from the tip of the vector to the line the component in the given direction is the vector along the given direction to the point where the perpendicular intersects length of component always less than length of vector

vector Direction line Component of vector in direction of line

Independent vectors
A vector has no component in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the vector Two vectors which are perpendicular to each other are called independent

vector direction Vector has zero component in this direction

Independent vectors

 Light is a transverse wave

Linear polarization

electric field and magnetic field vibrate perpendicular to the propagation direction ( fields have no component along propagation direction) For a horizontal propagation direction, the electric field can vibrate in the horizontal plane or the vertical direction can vibrate in any other transverse direction also

Electric field for vertical polarization

Electric field for horizontal polarization

What does this diagram mean?

Electric Field at P

P This means that at P there is an electric field

An electric charge placed at P would experience a force The direction of the force is indicated by the arrow The strength of the force is indicated by the length of the arrow

The diagram says nothing about electric fields at other points

There is no field indicated at the tip of the arrow or any other place along it

Properties of linearly polarized light

Polarization direction is always perpendicular to direction of propagation
Any two perpendicular directions may be chosen as fundamental directions (possibly horizontal and vertical for beams propagating horizontally)

Electric field vector oscillates in plane of polarization

Sometimes we symbolize it by a single arrow or double headed arrow or a line, but if we follow the change in vector with time it will go positive and negative y y

x Electric field at peak for vertical polarization

x Electric field at peak for horizontal polarization

Superposition of polarization vectors

Since the electric field is a vector, two light waves traveling in the same direction can be added by adding their electric field vectors
This just like what we did in interference, except there we didnt talk about the direction of the field vector only its size and phase
Just as in interference, the result of adding these two vibrating fields depends on the phase of their vibrations

beam 2 horizontal beam 1 vertical

Resultant (at one time and position)

 Two linearly polarized waves in phase add to give another linearly polarized wave with a different polarization plane
New plane is found by vector addition of two components

Superposition of two in-phase, linearly polarized waves

A linearly polarized wave can be thought of (and is) a sum of two other linearly polarized waves
Can be resolved into any two orthogonal directions

resultant At peak After peak After going through zero Negative peak

Pass direction

Law of Malus
m ut bea Outp

ea nput b I

A beam polarized in the pass direction is transmitted through the linear polarizer A beam polarized perpendicular to the pass direction is not transmitted Several different types of linear polarizer will be discussed later The beam exiting from the linear polarizer is always polarized in the pass direction

Law of Malus
Pass direction Component along pass direction m ut bea Inp

The input polarization is resolved into two components, along and perpendicular to the pass direction The component along the pass direction is transmitted, the perpendicular component is not
Simple trigonometry gives, Pout=Pin*cos2()

What if the beam is not polarized either parallel to or perpendicular to the pass direction? Output polarization direction am be utput O Input polarization direction

Circular polarization
There are other ways that the electric field can vibrate in a light wave
The vibration must be transverse, i.e. perpendicular to the propagation direction Field direction and magnitude must repeat after a wavelength

In circular polarization, the electric field maps out a circular pattern

Either observe at fixed point or wave frozen in time Propagation direction Path of electric field vector

 Two components equal in amplitude, but 90 out of phase

x is at its peak when y is zero, and vice-versa resultant traces out a circle as components oscillate changing sign of one component gives opposite rotation

Out-of-phase componentscircular polarization

 If the x and y components are not equal amplitude, the path of the resultant is an ellipse

Elliptical polarization

etc.

If the amplitudes are equal, but the phase difference is not 90 the polarization is also elliptical
x component is at maximum, but y is not zero

Change of polarization with phase between x and y components

Many polarizations can be obtained from the same x and y components just by changing phase between them
all possible polarizations can be inscribed in a rectangle max. x field max. y field Phase = 0

Phase = 45

Phase = 90

Phase = 180

Unpolarized (natural) light

Polarized light is predictable
If you know light is circularly polarized you know what its electric field vector will be at any time or place The phase difference between the x and y components is fixed

If the phase between the two components is unpredictable, rapidly changing in time, the light is unpolarized
Unpolarized light is a mixture of linearly polarized components in all possible directions, as well as all possible circular and elliptical polarizations unpolarized light originates in natural (thermal) sources

Partially polarized light can be thought of as a mixture of polarized and unpolarized light
no device exists that can separate the two however

Coherent light is always polarized!!!

If a light wave is perfectly coherent then the x and y components both have known and constant phases
Since we know the phase of x and y separately for all time, we also know their difference may be linear, circular, or elliptical, but stays constant

Whoa? What about unpolarized lasers??? Coherence is an ideal, the phase of a laser eventually (in a coherence time) forgets is past
coherence time, or coherence length, varies greatly between different laser types during a coherence time polarization of a laser stays constant to acknowledge this state of affairs, a laser without a definite polarization is often called randomly polarized (confusing terminology, but its all we have for now)

Production of polarized lightscattering

scatterers Single scaterer Scattered light, partially polarized electron

Incident, unpolarized light

ent id inc

ed tter sca

Microscopically, light interacts with materials by setting their electrons in motion

the electrons then reradiate producing absorption, reflection, scattering, and refractive index skylight is partially polarized

Force on the electron is transverse to propagation direction, thus only one polarization emitted at right angles

Production of polarized lightreflection

Reflected ray is partially polarized in the direction out of the paper air Refracted ray is partially polarized glass in the plane of the paper Reflected ray and refracted ray are generated by microscopic radiators also When refracted and reflected ray are at 90 the reflected ray is completely polarized (Brewsters angle) Refracted ray is partially polarized in the plane of the paper Reflected ray and refracted ray are generated by microscopic radiators also
nt ide inc ray
cted refra ray

ref ray lecte d

Polarization by reflection
1 0.9 0.8 0.7

n=1.5

both reflectivities high at grazing incidence

s-polarization perpendicular to plane of incidence

from German word for perpendicular sometimes called

Reflectivity

0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

s polarization p polarization both reflectivities equal at normal incidence Brewster's angle

p-polarization parallel to plane of incidence

90

sometimes called

Angle (degrees)

Sometimes easiest to remember as skip and pass

Polarizing pile of plates

Invented by Arago in 1812 15% of s polarization rejected at each surface
in principle the p-polarization is completely transmitted in practice it is difficult to reduce the loss below a few tenths of a percent

Still in use for some applications (e.g. CO2 laser at 10.6 m) Vertically (p)
Unpolarized light polarized light

 Some natural crystals (e.g. tourmaline) have absorption coefficients that are much larger for one linear polarization than another
electrons are free to vibrate only along one axis circular dichroic polarizers also exist

Polarization by dichroic crystals

Polaroid sheet invented by E. Land in 1932

microscopic polarizing crystals in nitrocellulose sheet stretched so all the crystals line up on the same axis

Dichroic has other unrelated meanings (its not my fault!!)

Production of polarized lightlaw of Malus

What happens when polarized, or unpolarized light is incident on a linear polarizer? Light is direction of resolved into amplitude of polarizer polarization of transmitted components incident light light along and perpendicular to Eincident the polarizer direction Parallel component transmitted, pependicular component rejected
transmitted amplitude=Eincident*cos transmitted intensity=Iincident*cos2 holds true even if incident polarization is elliptical or random

Production of polarized light by thin film polarizers

s-polarized component Input beam

p-polarized component

Glass has a multilayer dielectric coating (similar to antireflection coating) Angle is close to Brewsters angle (makes coating design easier) All s-polarized light is reflected not just 15%

Birefringence (Double refraction)

Electrons in many crystals have different forces on them in different directions
these crystals are said to be anisotropic an=not, iso=same, tropic=direction, thus not the same in every direction

As a result, the index of refraction depends on the polarization

result is refractive index depends on polarization Speed of light depends on polarization

Optic axis in anisotropic crystals

In an anisotropic crystal light going in one or two special directions has the same index of refraction independent of its polarization
these special directions are called the optic axes optic axis is a direction in the crystal not one particular line crystals with two optic axes are biaxial only uniaxial crystals will be discussed here

Direction of optic axis is closely tied to crystal structure

Propagation in a uniaxial crystal

c Along optic axis, the light pti o s axi propagates with a single propagation refractive index, the direction extraordinary ordinary index, no polarization For other propagation directions, there are two indices
Resolve the light into two linearly polarized components
one polarized perpendicular to the optic axis one in plane of optic axis and propagation direction ordinary polarization

polarization perpendicular to optic axis has index no The other polarization propagates with a different index of refraction called the extraordinary index, ne

Extraordinary index depends on the direction of propagation

Perpendicular to optic axis it differs the most from no Smoothly approaches no as direction approaches optic axis

Uniaxial crystalsrefraction
Consider a light ray incident at normal incidence on the surface of a uniaxial crystal
A light ray with a polarization perpendicular to the optic axis is called an ordinary ray A light ray with the other linear polarization is called an extraordinary ray
ary din or y ra

ary din or tra ex y ra

At the surface, the ordinary ray obeys Snells law, it doesnt refract because the incidence angle is zero
The extraordinary ray bends at the surface (except in the special case that the optic axis is parallel to the surface) At any angle of incidence the ordinary ray obeys Snells law The extraordinary ray does not in general obey Snells law

Birefringent polarizersNicol prism

Invented by William Nicol in 1828

according to Jenkins & White he didnt understand how it worked

Start with single crystal of calcite cut down ends 3 from natural angle (to 68)
cut apart along diagonal cement back together with Canada Balsam

O-ray of calcite has lower index than e-ray, undergoes TIR at interface, e-ray is transmitted

Other birefringent polarizers

Nicol prisms are simple, but have disadvantages relatively small acceptance angle (~28)
input is not at normal incidence cemented optics cannot be used with high-power lasers or in the UV

Several variations exist

Glan-Thompson is the most popular and overcomes all the difficulties listed above (but not all at once!)

Other polarizers separate the two components

Rochon prism, Wollaston prism

 Incident polarization is resolved into o and e polarizations inside crystal

shown with optic axis in plane of plate, but same principles if not directions along o and e are called fast axis and slow axis

Interference of polarized lightwaveplates

direction of optic axis birefringent plate

cally verti ent, incid ized beam polar

phase delay of o - ray = not / phase delay of e - ray = net / phase difference = (no ne )t /

Inside crystal the two waves propagate independently

each has its own index and possibly its own direction

Phases given in waves!

After emerging from crystal, recombine the two waves using the principle of superposition
keep track of phase difference in crystal continues to propagate in the normal way after exiting crystal

 Phase difference is a quarter wave

Quarter wave plate

Slow axis

If incident light polarized at 45 to fast axis the o and e components are equal amplitudes Phase difference is a quarter wave
emergent light is circularly polarized

Fast axis

If incident light polarized at 45 to fast axis the o and e components are equal amplitudes
emergent light is circularly polarized

If incident light is circularly polarized, output is linearly polarized

right-hand circular comes out parallel to fast axis, left to slow

Other polarizations result in elliptic output, but unpolarized light comes out unpolarized!

Waveplates (cont.)
Quarter wave plate in which the phase delay is exactly 1/4 is called a zero-order plate
only works exactly for one wavelength (even neglecting dispersion!!), but close to a quarter wave for other wavelengths must be very thin, can be mounted on substrate for structural stability if phase delay is n waves + 1/4 acts exactly the same at , but goes out of phase very quickly as changes

Half-wave plate, 90 phase difference for linearly polarized input at 45 to fast axis, emergent light is linearly polarized, but rotated 90 Babinet-Soliel compensator, arrangement of birefringent plates that can produce a variable phase delay

Analysis of unknown polarization

If a linear polarizer is rotated and the transmission goes to zero at some angle, then input is linearly polarized, DONE. If no there is no variation with polarizer rotation, light is circularly polarized, unpolarized, or a mixture of these
to distinguish between these, put in /4 plate before polarizer if light was circular, it will now be linear, detect with polarizer if it was unpolarized, it will still be unpolarized, ie no variation with polarizer if there is now a variation with the polarizer but the minima dont go to zero, then the light is partially polarized degree of polarization defined as

I MAX I MIN = I MAX + I MIN

 If there is a variation with the linear polarizer (and no /4 plate) the light must be at least partially polarized but might also be elliptical Insert /4 plate with fast axis along direction of maximum transmission
for elliptically polarized light, the phase difference between major and minor axes is also /4, but the two components are unequal amplitude, therefore, the /4 plate will convert this to linear polarization, but an angle to the original maximum, detect with polarizer If the polarizer show that the light is not linear even with the /4 plate inserted, the light is not completely polarized, degree of polarization defined as before, there are still two possibilities
if minimum at same angle as before, mixture of linear polarization and unpolarized, if minimum at different angle then mixture of linear and elliptical

Analysis of unknown polarization (cont.)

Optical rotation
Some materials exhibit the phenomenon of optical activity plane polarized light (at any angle) remains plane polarized, but its angle of polarization rotates as it goes through the material Note differences between this behavior and that of a waveplate, in optical activity: input polarization doesnt matter, rotation increases with thickness of the material, output polarization is always linear

Optical activity can be induced in some materials due to a magnetic field, Faraday effect
This is the only one of the multitude of polarization effects we have examined which is not reversible
By reversible I mean that the direction of propagation can be reversed if the output and input polarizations are switched

This effect is the basis of optical diodes and optical isolators