HOVER DESIGN NOTES

Theories on Advanced Ground-effect Levitation

Bill Butler

HOVER DESIGN NOTES 1

Contents

About HoverTech Theory 1 Electrostatic Repulsion Levitation Experiment Theory 2 Magnetic Ion Containment Magnetic Bottle Experiment Theory 3 Electrostatic Ion Containment Ion Pressure Experiment Theory 4 Paramagnetic Levitation Paramagnetic Gas Experiment Theory 5 - Multi-Surface Maglev Maglev Experiment Van De Graaff Generator High Voltage Power Supply Ion Detector Gauss Meter Research Update Parts Sources

3 4 6 8 9 12 15 16 17 18 18 20 23 28 32 34 35

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About HoverTech
HoverTech, is a small research and development team dedicated to the task of developing environmentally-friendly and fun forms of transportation. We started work on the hoverboard in 1991, which has since become almost a household word. Ultimately, we believe the technology can be adapted to cars in an effort to create safer highways, cleaner air, and longer-lasting vehicles. HoverTechs parent company, Space Magnetics is conducting research into alternative aerospace technology with plans to develop a rocket-less system for launching satellites and ultimately people into space by using superconducting magnets designed to surf the Earths magnetic field. Find out more about this exciting project at www.spacemagnetics.com Our Hover Design Notes are a collection of all of our best ideas which we hope will not only encourage you to experiment, but inspire you to come up with some of your own ideas!

www.hovertech.com
To find out more about our hoverboard project, be sure to visit our website at www.hovertech.com where youll find frequently asked questions, free technical support, design updates, a hoverboard simulator, and much more. Or write to us at the address below.

Hover Design Notes

Edited by Bill Butler Research Team: Bill Butler, Dominic Florin, Andrew Palfreyman Copyright 2007, HoverTech. All rights reserved.

HoverTech
5390 Wolf Ct Frederick, CO 80504 WARNING AND DISCLAIMER
Some of the designs in this report deal with and involve subject matter which may be hazardous to health and life. Do not attempt to implement or use the information contained herein, unless you are experienced and skilled with respect to such subject matter, materials, and substances. Neither HoverTech, nor the editor, make any representation as for the completeness or accuracy of the information contained herein, and disclaim any liability for damages or injuries, whether caused by or arising from the lack of completeness, inaccuracies of the information, misrepresentation of the directions, misapplication of the information, or otherwise.

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Theory 1 Electrostatic Repulsion

One of the most important considerations in designing a vehicle capable of sustained flight is altitude. Since a hoverboard doesnt need to be able to scale houses and trees, we can design it to operate most efficiently near the ground in what is called ground-effect mode. This simply means the vehicle pushes against the ground to obtain lift. Since electrostatic force works best over short distances, using it to levitate a hoverboard seems like the most logical approach.

HOW IT WORKS
In order to create an electrostatic force between two objects, both objects need to carry an electric charge. While we can easily design a hoverboard with a large metal surface for carrying a charge, the ground carries only a minute positive charge, and trying to increase its charge is like trying to increase the level of the Pacific Ocean with a beach pail. Nevertheless, there are ways around the problem. For example, we can simply raise the charge on the hoverboard in order to compensate for the difference in charge. According to a patent dealing with electrostatically levitated vehicles (Patent #3,095,167 filed June 25, 1963 by H.C. Dudley) this is already possible: It has been demonstrated that a missile such as a ball of conductive material, can be projected upwardly against the action of gravity by placing a relatively high charge on the order of 400,000 to 500,000 volts on the ball by means of a suitable electrostatic generator. With this procedure, altitudes of as much as 10 centimeters were attained without the use of any propelling charge and proves that gravity can not only be counterbalanced by electrostatic charges, but also that such charges can actually propel a missile from the earths surface. The tricky part, however, is figuring out how to maintain a high enough charge within such close proximity to the ground. At the root of the problem is a natural phenomenon which occurs around high electric fields that causes nearby objects to become charged. Unfortunately, the charged induced is always opposite to the charge that caused it. And since opposite charges attract, this obviously results in a very undesirable force of attraction! To make matters even worse, it sets up a potential difference which can easily break down the resistance of the air and allow the charge to discharge to ground. While certain insulators like plastic and glass are largely unaffected by this phenomenon, most surfaces that a hoverboard will encounter (pavement, concrete, grass, sand, etc.) are very susceptible because they contain trace amounts of moisture. From our research, we have found only two ways to overcome the problem of surface charge induction. The first method is the brute force approach and involves continuously blanketing the surface with a stream of ions. For the purpose of clarity, well designate a positive charge on the hoverboard, and consequently, the charge induced on the surface will be negative. Therefore, our stream of positive ions will be forced downwards due to the repulsion of like charges and the attraction of opposite charges. As they strike the surface, theyll be neutralized by the free electrons there. But given a strong enough stream of ions, the induced surface charge could be cancelled out. Since the ground normally carries a slight positive charge, once enough ions have saturated the surface, the net charge should become positive again and allow repulsion between the board and the ground. Although this may not sound like a very efficient approach, it shines in its simplicity.

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Ions may be generated in several ways including an array of pointed electrodes on the metal underside of the hoverboard, a UV light source, or a magnetron like those used in microwave ovens. Since a magnetron can ionize a large volume of air almost instantaneously, it is ideal for use in a moving vehicle like a hoverboard. The electric field of the hoverboard would then separate the charged particles produced by the microwave radiation by forcing the positive ions towards the ground and the free electrons towards the hoverboard where they recombine with positive charges - inefficient, but a necessary energy expenditure A typical magnetron from a microwave oven. to separate charges. As far as safety is concerned, microwaves will cause a mild warming sensation if you get too close, but otherwise, there is very little danger since the radiation is not confined to a 1 resonant chamber as in a microwave oven . In fact, certain space heaters use microwave radiation because they dont waste energy heating up the air. Instead, microwaves only heat up water molecules which are found primarily in organic matter. Nevertheless, a ground proximity switch installed to disable the magnetron if the board is picked up wouldnt be a bad idea. The second method of nullifying the induced surface charge is a bit more theoretical and involves freezing the ground charge and then switching the charge polarity of the hoverboard so as to create a force of repulsion. Thus, as the hoverboard moves, you would have a repeating cycle of charge induction charge freezing and charge reversal. The freeze method may involve the use of magnetic fields to lock the charges into tiny spins. Or, if the charge on the hoverboard can be reversed significantly faster than the time it takes the charges on the surface to flip, then an electrostatic hoverboard might work simply by providing an alternating charge at the right frequency. Either way, more research will be necessary to determine if either of these methods are practical.

SYSTEM OPERATION
Calculating the repulsive force produced between two like charges can be found by Coulombs Law which states:

Fe = k Q1Q2 d2
Where Fe is electrostatic repulsion; k is Coulombs constant: (8.988 x 109 N . m2/C2); Q1 is the charge on the hoverboard, Q2 is the charge on the surface, and d is the distance between the board and the ground.

According to an independent study by Mike Rogers, Ph.D., John Hopkins University Physics Laboratory.

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If we assume the charge on the hoverboard will be the same as the charge added to the surface (Q1=Q2), then the charge on either can be found by solving for Q:

Q=

F d2 k

So for example, if we want our hoverboard to lift 200 lbs, 2 inches above the ground, it will need to -6 13 generate a charge of 3.5 x 10 Coulombs (2.2 x 10 electrons) on both the hoverboard, and the ground. Since one ampere of current constitutes 6.25 x 1018 electrons per second, we only need 3.5 microamps of current to keep the ground charged! Thats assuming the charge on the surface will last longer than a second. But as long as the surface is non-conductive with a low dielectric constant, this shouldnt be a problem. In reality, the total charge on the surface will only be a fraction of the charge on the hoverboard due to the fact that metal holds a charge far better than the ground. Consequently, most of the hoverboards power will be spent replenishing the surface charge. Further experimentation will be necessary to determine how much charge can be maintained on an insulated surface such as a paved road or sidewalk, and for how long. Additionally, there may be some opposite charges on the surface induced by the close proximity of the hoverboard which will require additional energy to balance out. However again, this will depend on the dielectric factor of the surface. The surface area of the hoverboard is not necessary to determine the total charges necessary, however the larger this surface area is, the lower the charge density and voltage will need to be. The voltage initially required to charge the hoverboard can be found by the following equation where A is the area of the hoverboard:

V = 4 k d Q A
So for example, if our hoverboard had a conductive surface area of approximately 5 square feet, the initial voltage needed to charge the board would only be about 40,000 volts.

HOVER BIKES
Since an electrostatic hoverboard will likely be much larger than a skateboard, pushing one around by foot could be an awkward experience (not to mention the annoying shocks you would receive every time your foot touched the ground). So obviously, some alternative form of propulsion would be in order. One distinct possibility is the hover bike. For propulsion, a pedal-powered fan could be mounted on the fork so that it would turn with the handle bars. Additionally, a small generator could be attached to the hub of the fan in order to keep a battery charged. The battery would provide power for a Van de Graaff generator and perhaps a magnetron for ionizing the surface. Braking might be accomplished by either retractable wheels or a deflector that would reverse the flow of air from the fan. Eventually, larger self-propelled models could be developed that might run on hydrogen or natural gas. Since these vehicles would be propelled by jets, magnetohydrodynamic generators could be installed which would generate electricity without any moving parts.

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ELECTROSTATIC LEVITATION EXPERIMENT By Jeff Bertrand Setup:

A horizontal high voltage electrode is needed to produce a uniform electrostatic field above a flat conductive ground plane. I used a set of soda cans held in place by a PVC pipe insulator. A Van De Graaff generator (see page 15) feeds the charge to the cans through a wire inside the PVC pipe. The ground plane is aluminum foil. The can is 6 inches from the ground plane. The Satellite is also made from aluminum foil and is 0.75 inches long and 0.25 inches wide at its widest point. The bottom of the satellite goes to a very sharp point and the top is a blunt point.

Operation:
Run the generator and hold the satellite under the can about 3 inches away from the ground plane. I lay the satellite on the tip of a regular screwdriver to help hold it in launch position. When the satellite is attracted to the can, remove the screwdriver and watch as the satellite levitates under the can. I have had it remain stable for over a minute. Once it begins to hover and is stable, you can turn off the generator and only need to pulse it occasionally to reestablish the hover point of the satellite. It does take some time to get it just right. Don't expect it to work first time. But when it does, it is a fantastic thing to see.

Going Further:
Once you obtain a stable hover point take a sewing needle or pin and point it at the can so as to slowly discharge the can. Start with the pin about 1 foot away from the can and slowly move it closer. As the pin starts to affect the charge on the cans watch what the satellite does. Does this make sense to you? Can you explain why it does what it does? Let me know what you think. This experiment was found on Jeff Bertrands website at http://ro.com/~jjb/. The original experiment was first published in Homemade Lightning by R.A. Ford (TAB Books).

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Theory 2 Magnetic Ion Containment

Like the previous theory, magnetic ion containment works by electrostatic repulsion to levitate a hoverboard. The way it differs, however, is in the introduction of a cushion of like-charged ions between the board and the ground. We talked about ions streaming towards the ground in the first chapter, but the ions described here are intended to spin parallel to the ground instead. The advantage to having a cushion of ions is that it reduces the overall charge needed to lift the same amount of weight. The challenge, however, is keeping all the ions together against their mutually repulsive forces.

HOW IT WORKS
According to the principles of charged particle dynamics, an ion having a charge q (see Figure 2-1 below) moving at a velocity V, perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field B (represented by the arrows), will experience a force F, causing the ion to travel in a circle of radius r. The relationships between these values can be expressed according to the following formulas:

r=

m.V
. q B

B r F V q

F=qVB

Figure 2-1 An ions path as it travels through a magnetic field.

In a similar way, the earths magnetic field provides a magnetic bottle for the charged particles that make up the Van Allen belts as shown at right. As charged particles produced by solar wind come streaming towards the earth, they become trapped inside by the earths magnetic field where they may spiral back and forth between the North and South pole thousands of times a second. To illustrate how ions spinning in circles will help levitate the hoverboard, imagine that the ion path in Figure 2-1 contains not one ion, but a continuous stream of ions all moving with the same angular velocity. Now imagine an entire column of these circular ion streams or shells extending from the bottom of the hoverboard, all the way to the surface. As the magnetic force keeps the ions in orbit, the electrostatic force between the shells effectively creates an invisible support for the hoverboard.

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SYSTEM OPERATION
While the concept is simple in principle, designing a working system is a bit more complicated. The biggest problem, of course, is that the ions will be slowed down by frequent collisions with air molecules. Since the force that contains an ion is directly proportional to its velocity, ions will gradually spiral inward as they lose speed. However, since the ions will lose speed as they get closer to the ground, it should be possible to adjust the magnetic field strength so that the ion orbits remain fairly constant. This is because while an ions orbit radius is proportional to its speed, it is also inversely proportional to the magnetic field strength, which naturally decreases with distance. Another important aspect of the magnetic field is its field gradient. In a uniform magnetic field, an orbiting ion will be free to drift. However, if the field had had an outward increasing field gradient, the ion would naturally remain in a fixed orbit due to the fact that as the ion drifts outward, the increasing magnetic field will cause a corresponding decrease in the ions orbital radius. One way to provide such a field gradient is by using a ferrous core in the shape of a ring like shown in Figure 2-2. Since the field needs to be strongest at its perimeter, the core may be beveled in order to concentrate the magnetic flux towards the edge of the ring. When everything is properly calibrated, the magnetic ion containment system should be able to levitate the same weight as the electrostatic repulsion design, but with a substantially lower net charge. The main requirement is that ion velocity falls within a range dependent upon the ambient pressure and temperature. Additionally, since the overall net charge of the system will be lower than a direct electrostatic repulsion design, surface charge induction will be much less of a problem.

Increasing field gradient

Figure 2-2 Magnetic field gradient.

MAGNETIC BOTTLE EXPERIMENT

In the following experiment, well build a magnetic bottle to contain a homogenously charged gas at atmospheric pressure, and hopefully produce some levitation. For help building the containment field coil, see the hoverboard section of our website at: www.spacemagnetics.com/hoverboards. Since the coil specifications given are based largely on an estimated speed of an ion (which can vary considerably), keep in mind that there are no guarantees with this type of experimentation and dont be discouraged if it doesnt work right away. Using variable power sources for both the containment coil and Van de Graaff generator will greatly increase your chances of success.

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Setup:
Start by building an electromagnetic coil by winding 133 turns of #20 gauge magnet wire around a 12inch diameter by 3-inch plastic form (the top 3 inches of a standard 12-inch bucket makes a good rigid form). After the coil is wound, solder the leads to a terminal strip mounted on the coil. The total length of the wire you will need will be about 419 feet, and the coil resistance should measure 4.6 ohms.

Next, you will need a low voltage (0-23 volt) DC power supply rated for at least 5 amps continuous duty
(see page 18). Connect the power supply to the coil and using a Gauss meter (see page 27), measure the field in the center of the coil. It should be about .0027 Tesla when driven with 5 amps.

Cut out a 12-inch diameter metal plate and attach it to the bottom of the coil form using glue or doublesided tape. Make sure the plate is far enough way from the coil windings to prevent shorts.

Next, assemble the ion emitter array by soldering 3 or 4 sewing needles together as shown in Figure 23 below. Drill a -inch hole in the center of the round plate and mount the ion emitter array through an insulator to keep the array electrically isolated from the plate. Wire the array directly to the output of your Van de Graaff generator.
To Van de Graaff generator To voltage multiplier output Metal plate Ion emitter needles Figure 2-3 Ion emitter array.

Find a large flat surface thats well insulated from ground and cover it with aluminum foil. Suspend the
coil assembly from a scale so that it hangs about an inch above the aluminum foil.

Finally, wire both the metal plate and aluminum foil up to a second variable high voltage supply with the
SAME polarity as the Van de Graaff generator. If youre using our Van de Graaff generator (page 17), you may use the output of the voltage multiplier to provide the charge on the plate and aluminum foil. Youll probably want to experiment with different voltages by tapping the voltage multiplier at different points.

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Operation: Power up the voltage multiplier connected to the plate and aluminum foil and note the reading on the scale. Since the polarity on these surfaces is the same, there should be some repulsion between the plate and aluminum foil. Next, connect power to the ion emitter array, and while observing the scale, slowly turn up the voltage on the coil. At some point, you should be able to produce an ion column. You wont be able to see it, so the only way to tell if it is working is by looking for either a change in weight of the coil assembly, or a sudden increase in the charge level measured with an ion detector (see page 23) near the center of the coil. At 23 volts and 5 2 amps, the coil should produce a 5-inch ion radius . Increasing the output of the Van de Graaff generator will increase the radius, as will decreasing the power supplied to the coil. Refer back to the equations on page 5 for ion radius and force due to a magnetic field. It is critical that the force on the ions due to the magnetic field is greater than the force on the ions due to mutual electrostatic repulsion. Going Further:
The problem with experimenting with microscopic particles is that you can never be sure what theyre doing. A cloud chamber will enable you to see the trails of ions as they form by the condensation of alcohol vapor, thus allowing you to make the adjustments necessary to tune your magnetic bottle. To construct a cloud chamber youll need the following: A clear plastic container with lid. A piece of black cloth. A large flat sponge Alcohol. A bright light source such as a slide projector. A flat piece of dry ice. (Note: Dry ice is so cold it can burn your skin, so use caution when handling it. You can find it by looking under Dry Ice in the yellow pages.

Construction and Testing

Cut the sponge so that it fits snugly in the bottom of the plastic container. Do the same for a piece of the black cloth and glue to the top of the sponge. After the glue has dried, pour one tablespoon of rubbing alcohol onto the cloth and sponge. Pour out any excess alcohol and wipe away any alcohol that got on the sides of the container. Tightly secure the lid onto the container. Place the block of dry ice on a towel and set the cloud chamber on top of the ice. Focus the light from the slide projector onto the center of the cloud chamber. In 5-10 minutes, a cloud will appear in the center of the cloud chamber. You may see an occasional flash through the cloud as vapor trails appear. These are caused by radioactive particles from cosmic radiation. Theres no cause for alarm though; the particles are too small to cause any harm. To see what an ion column looks like, youll need to mount the ion emitter array inside the center of the cloud chamber, then place the whole unit in the center of the containment coil. Adjust the magnetic field strength, and Van de Graaff generator output until you see the curved path of the ions.

Based on empirical data, not absolute.

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Theory 3 Electrostatic Ion Containment

The fundamental principle behind the electrostatic ion containment theory is ion pressure. When forced together in large quantities, like-charged ions can produce tremendous pressure. For example if only 1% of the molecules in a volume of gas at standard temperature and pressure were uniformly ionized, the net charge would produce over 2 psi of electrostatic pressure. And if 100% of those molecules could be ionized (unlikely), the net pressure would exceed 240 psi!

HOW IT WORKS
Referring to Figure 3-1, a high voltage supply is connected to an electrode positioned above a pair of electromagnets, L1 and L2. At around 100,000 volts, we can produce a continuous spark about 8 to 12 inches in length. With L1 and L2 off, the spark will take the path of least resistance and travel straight to ground. However, when the coils are energized, the magnetic field will tend to bend the spark perpendicular to the magnetic field in a direction dependent on the polarity of the field. If an alternating current was applied to the coils, the spark would swing back and forth like a pendulum. If the frequency of the alternating current was high enough, the spark would appear to be everywhere at once along its swing.
SPARK ELECTRODE L1 L2

HIGH-VOLTAGE SUPPLY

FUNCTION GENERATOR

IONIZED AIR GROUND

Figure 3-1 Spark Pendulum

As the spark ionizes the air through which it passes, negative ions are forced out away from the spark in all directions due to repulsion of like charges. Any positive ions are intercepted and neutralized by the stream of electrons leaving a net negative charge in the surrounding air. With the addition of two extra coils at right angles to L1 and L2, we gain 2-dimensional control of the spark as shown in Figure 3-2. The stronger the current in the coils, the farther the spark will be bent. Cathode ray tubes use this same principle to precisely control the targeting of an electron beam onto a phosphorous coated screen.

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If we apply a sine wave signal to L1 and L2, and a cosine wave signal (a sine wave phase shifted 90 degrees) to L2 and L3, we will have created the formula for a circle and our spark will move accordingly. At a high enough frequency, the spark will appear to be at every point on the circle simultaneously forming a spectacular column of light all the way to the ground.

L3 SPARK PATH L1 L2

90 DEGREE PHASE SHIFTER

SYNC SIGNAL

L4 SINE WAVE GENERATOR

Figure 3-2 Spark Rotator System

As the spark rotates, half of the ions produced will be forced towards the center of the spark column like shown in Figure 3-3. These ions become trapped within the column due to the law of averages. Even though the spark exists at only one point on the column at any given time, the average force it exerts on the inner ions is strong enough to prevent them from escaping as illustrated by the graph in Figure 3-4.

SPARK PATH

Design Note: The larger the diameter of the spark path, the faster the spark will need to rotate, or the higher the spark current will need to be in order to maintain the same pressure. However, a larger diameter spark path will allow a greater quantity of ions to fit inside the spark column, thus reducing the level of electrostatic pressure needed.

Figure 3-3 Spark path

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FORCE AVERAGE FORCE

1 REV.

TIME Figure 3-4 Electrostatic repulsive force vs. time

SYSTEM OPERATION
To give you an idea of how this works, consider that at any point, the electrons in the spark exert a repulsive force on nearby ions causing them to accelerate away from the spark. The momentum of the ions, and the lateral forces provided by adjacent ions keeps them moving towards the center of the column even after the spark has passed. After the spark has moved 180 degrees around the column, the ions begin to slow down and reverse their course due to the increasing repulsive force from the center of the column. As the spark nears its starting point, the ions are already hurtling back towards the center. This cycle repeats continuously at every point around the column, so you can see how timing would be critical. There will, however, be a point at which the pressure from the accumulated ions becomes too much for the spark to maintain. Although increasing the power to the spark or increasing its rotational velocity will allow greater pressures, there will be a point of diminishing returns. Therefore, the trick will be to find the optimum state of the system where you would get the highest pressure per power ratio. This will be determined by the sparks amplitude, rotational frequency, and the maximum diameter of the spark column. By now you should have a pretty good idea how a column of compressed ions can be made. But how will it lift and support a hoverboard? Very simply. Since the ions are retained by the rotating spark, the only place they can go is up or down. At the top of the column, ions will be repelled by a metal plate carrying the same charge as the ions, and among the ions striking the ground, some will stick, thus creating a natural barrier.

DRAWBACKS AND SOLUTIONS

One of the drawbacks to this design is that it requires a grounded or conductive surface in order to produce a spark. However, if the surface were grounded, it would be impossible for the ions to build up enough static charge to repel the column. Catch 22. The solution may be to use an ion beam rather than a spark. The difference is simply a matter of potential difference, although a stream of ions will not be as directional or focused as a spark due to a cascading ionization effect. Then again, if enough ions can be physically contained within the column, just the increase in air pressure may be enough to provide lift without the need for electrostatic pressure. And at a high enough voltage, the electric field developed between the spark electrode and the surface may be enough to induce an opposite charge on the surface and create a spark. The effects of high wind pressure have not been tested yet, though our best guess is that wind will flow through the electron column without any effect, due to the fact that wind travels very slowly compared to the speed of air molecules which normally travel at several thousand miles per hour.

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But perhaps the most uncertain aspect of the electrostatic ion containment design is its ability to retain a large enough concentration of like-charge ions. Since ions are very small particles that are quickly neutralized by contact with anything that doesnt carry the same charge, containing them can be a real problem. If we were to use a metal bottle, the ions would quickly transfer their charge to the metal and we would never produce ion pressure. Charging the metal bottle the same polarity as the ions wont help the situation either since the net charge inside the bottle would remain zero due to the fact that charge resides only on the outside of a hollow conductive object. However, it may be possible to create ion pressure inside a plastic bottle provided the dielectric constant of the bottle is significantly lower than that of the ionized gas. This allows the charge to remain within the gas rather than adhere to the walls by reducing the amount of polarization of the bottle. In the following experiment, well try to trap some like-charge ions inside a bottle and see how much pressure we get by measuring the net charge.

ION PRESSURE EXPERIMENT Setup: Youll need a sewing needle, about 10-feet of insulated wire, and a plastic bottle with a plastic cap. Solder a 3-foot length of wire to the head of the needle, and using a pair of pliers, carefully press the
needle through the plastic cap. Connect the wire to the output terminal of a Van de Graaff generator or other high-voltage DC power source.

Strip one end of a 7-foot length of insulated wire and wrap it around the ring tab of a soda can. Suspend the can by the wire from at least 3 feet. Position the can about an inch from the plastic bottle and connect the end of the wire to the output of the Van de Graaff generator. Operation
Switch on the Van de Graaff generator and watch the soda can. As the charge builds up inside the plastic bottle, you should see the can begin to move away from the bottle indicating the intensity of the charge. If you dont get any results within a minute or two, you probably need to increase the insulation of the bottle by placing it on top a block of styrofoam. You might also try using a plastic thermos bottle with a vacuum jacket instead of the plastic bottle. Once you get it to work, see how long the bottle will hold its charge after you turn off the high-voltage supply. Keep the voltage on the test can, however, so you can see when it swings back to the vertical position. Have fun and good luck!

HOVER DESIGN NOTES 15

Theory 4 Paramagnetic Levitation

Could it be possible to build a hoverboard that would float without expending any energy? One idea we had involves the use of a paramagnetic gas, such as oxygen. Under the right conditions, gaseous oxygen (O2) will acquire a strong attraction towards a magnetic field with the end result being one of two possibilities. Either the gas will condense into liquid oxygen, or the gas will be compressed around the magnet. If the latter is the case, this may be the most incredible discovery yet!

HOW IT WORKS
Paramagnetism is the magnetic behavior of certain substances which tends to enhance an external magnetic field. Like ferrous materials, paramagnetic substances become magnetized in the presence of another magnetic field due to the alignment of their electron spins with the external field. Since a paramagnetic gas is attracted to a magnetic field, it is possible that such a gas could be contained by this attraction. Ionization of the gas would not be necessary, although a supply of the gas would have to be carried on board to replace what leaks out. This approach could solve one of the biggest problems we foresee with ionized air - the fact that ions, especially negative ions, will discharge upon contact with the ground. Unfortunately, paramagnetism is very weak. At ordinary temperatures and external fields, only a very small fraction of the molecules are aligned because thermal motion tends to randomize their orientation. However, by initially cooling the gas to a temperature just above absolute zero, and using a strong magnetic field provided by a rare-earth permanent magnet or superconducting coil, almost all of the molecules will become aligned. And since, technically, no work is being done to keep the hoverboard at a fixed height (W= mgh; where h = 0), no energy needs to be expended!

SYSTEM OPERATION
One idea we had involves charging up a hoverboard by sticking it inside a metal box resembling a microwave oven. The machine could be programmed with your exact specifications such as weight, hover height, duration, etc. Then in a few seconds, or minutes depending upon your requirements, the machine would signal that its done and youd pull out your lunch - er, hoverboard - all ready to go! Whats interesting is that when you open the door of the machine, the board will already be floating. You can pull it out, turn it upside down, shake it up, but the magnetized gas will not break loose. The system would work by circulating super cold compressed oxygen through the center of several large ring-shaped permanent magnets attached to the bottom of the hoverboard like shown in Figure 4-1. As the oxygen molecules flow through the magnet, some of them become aligned with the magnetic field and end up being attracted towards the magnet. Since gas molecules experience elastic collisions, the magnetically aligned molecules should bounce back and forth against the magnet as if they were on bungee cords (or they will just condense into a useless liquid state). But assuming the trapped molecules did retain their energy, theres a good chance they might eventually form a layer of magnetized gas with enough pressure over a large enough area to lift the hoverboard. This charging process would need to take place in an airtight chamber so that the paramagnetic gas, in this case oxygen, can be continuously recycled until a specific quantity of the gas has been aligned. Since the chances of a paramagnetic gas molecule becoming aligned with an external field increase over

HOVER DESIGN NOTES 16

time, the process should work. But whether or not the magnetized molecules will remain magnetized has yet to be discovered.
Paramagnetic gas enters here

Permanent magnet Magnetically aligned gas molecule

Figure 4-1 A hoverboard supported by a paramagnetic gas.

PARAMAGNETIC GAS EXPERIMENT

To demonstrate the magnetic effects of a paramagnetic gas, heres a simple experiment. You will need a long thin balloon filled with pure oxygen which you can get from a medical supply or welding supply store, a 12-inch length of PVC pipe large enough to squeeze the balloon into, about 30 feet of 22 gauge or smaller magnet wire, electrical tape, a 12-volt transformer, and a good multimeter.

Start by winding 50 turns of magnet wire around the PVC pipe leaving about 12 inches of lead length.
Hold the windings in place with a layer of electrical tape, then wind a second 50-turn coil on top of the first. Tape this coil in place also.

Connect one pair of leads to the multimeter, and the other pair to the secondary of a 12-volt
transformer. Set the multimeter to AC volts, and plug in the 12-volt transformer. Record the voltage reading you get on the meter.

Next, stuff the balloon into the PVC pipe and record the new voltage reading. It should be slightly
higher due to the addition of the paramagnetic gas. Also try other paramagnetic materials like aluminum and wood and see how they compare with a ferrous material like iron.

HOVER DESIGN NOTES 17

Theory 5 Multi-Surface Maglev

While current maglev trains are capable of reaching speeds approaching 500 miles per hour (the cruise speed of most passenger jets), they are limited by the need for an expensive track embedded with electromagnets. But what if we could take the same maglev concept and make it work over a variety of surfaces, including highways, without any modifications?

HOW IT WORKS
If youve ever been to a good hands-on science museum like the Exploratorium in San Francisco, youve undoubtedly seen the levitating disk exhibit. This is where an aluminum disk will float, in perfect equilibrium, over an alternating magnetic field. The principle behind this phenomenon is simple. The alternating magnetic field produced by an AC-powered electromagnet induces a current into the conductive disk which, in turn, produces a field that opposes the field that created it. The disk can be made of any non-ferrous metal including brass or copper. A ferrous metal disk, however, will not work because the field induced in the disk would attract, rather than repel, the field that created it. Now if the electromagnet was powerful and light enough, we could invert the whole experiment, and allow the electromagnet to float above the aluminum disk! Then if we really got creative, the disk could be replaced by an entire floor made of aluminum sheeting so as to allow the electromagnet to glide in any direction without friction. By scaling up the concept, we could even build a Hoverboard Arena where funseekers could strap on boards or skates equipped with electromagnets, and possibly even compete in hover sports. Taking it a step further, it may be possible to build a system capable of working over ordinary non-metallic surfaces such as streets, sidewalks, floors, sand, and even grass. Since the surface only needs to have conductive and nonferrous properties, we already have half the problem solved since most surfaces are already nonferrous. To make the same surfaces conductive, all we need to do is induce a sufficient negative charge on the surface. With enough free electrons on the surface, an electric current can flow. One way to accomplish this is to place a large metal plate on the bottom of the hoverboard and charge it to a high positive potential using a Van de Graaff or other suitable high voltage generator. The high electric field will induce the opposite (negative) charge on the surface which should then be ready to accept induced currents from the onboard electromagnet.

MAGLEV EXPERIMENT
To demonstrate magnetically induced levitation, youll need an electromagnet and a source of alternating current. For starters, you can use the standard 60Hz line voltage provided by a wall outlet. We recommend using a variac in line with the electromagnet in order to regulate the amount of current through the coil. For more advanced experiments, you may want to use a sine wave pattern generator so you can also adjust the frequency for optimum results.

HOVER DESIGN NOTES 18

Setup: Obtain a 120 volt solenoid or make your own by winding 112 turns of 18-gauge magnet wire around a
6-inch diameter iron core. The core diameter is not critical, but it should be at least the same diameter as the aluminum disk you will be using. Youll need about 179 feet of magnet wire for a coil that will draw 10 amps at 120VAC. Be careful not to operate the coil longer than a few minutes at a time or it will overheat.

Fabricate an aluminum disk from 1/8-inch thick or smaller aluminum stock. The diameter should be smaller than the diameter of the electromagnets core. Operation: Connect the coil leads to a 0-120V variac (optional) or directly to 120VAC. Holding the aluminum disk
about an inch above the electromagnet, you should feel it begin to vibrate. Let go of the disk and it should remain suspended and stable above the electromagnet. The stronger the magnetic field, and the lighter the disk, the higher it will float.

Once you have proven that a conductive, non-ferrous object will float over an alternating magnetic field,
try the same experiment on a non-conductive material such as a plastic disk. Since the disk must be conductive in order to accept induced currents, you will be inducing an electrostatic charge on the disk via an external electric field. Start by placing a thin steel plate over the electromagnet with an insulator in between to prevent arcing to the core and windings. Wire the plate to the output of a Van de Graaff generator modified to produce a positive output, or the positive terminal of a high voltage DC power supply. Be sure to ground the Van de Graaff generator or power supply. Tie a thread to the center of the plastic disk and slowly lower it over the electromagnet and charged plate. At some point, the disk will acquire a negative charge on the bottom and a positive charge on the top. Since the charges on the disk and plate will have the opposite polarity, there will be a tendency for the two to attract. This force, however, should be canceled by the stronger magnetic repulsive force created between them. Note: To levitate an electromagnet over an electrostatically-charged insulator in this fashion will require a great deal more power than what weve been using, and may only be possible using a superconducting electromagnet.

HOVER DESIGN NOTES 19

Van De Graaff Generator

For generating the enormous quantity of ions required by electrostatic levitation, and providing an excellent source of high-voltage DC, nothing is more economical than a Van de Graaff generator. Invented in 1931 by the American physicist, Robert J. Van de Graaff, the Van de Graaff generator is an essential tool for any physics lab. Sizes vary depending on the output voltage. While a small table-top model typically produces 300 to 500 kilovolts, full size industrial units can stand 2 stories tall and generate millions of volts of static electricity while creating lightning bolts up to fifty feet long!

SAFETY WARNING!
The following project deals with high-voltage and potentially lethal electrostatic charges. For your own protection, always follow these basic precautions when working with high voltage. Always turn off power when working with high-voltage circuits unless you are actively testing the circuit. Always keep one hand in your pocket when testing a live circuit. This prevents the high voltage from crossing your heart if one hand accidentally touched a high voltage terminal while the other was touching ground. After turning the power off, always discharge high-voltage capacitors to ground through a 1 to 10-megohm resistor before working on the circuit. This drains the residual charge left in the capacitor- which in itself can be fatal. The resistor prevents the capacitor from discharging too rapidly, which can cause the component to burst. Shield all high-voltage output terminals to prevent an accidental shock.

The output of the Van de Graaff generator described here will produce between 200 and 500 kilovolts depending on the size and quality of the components used. Under dry conditions, it will produce sparks up to 15 inches long! Although the output voltage is extremely high, the current is generally under a hundred microamperes. Nevertheless, you should always use the Van de Graaff generator with the same caution you would any other high-voltage device.

HOVER DESIGN NOTES 20

HOW IT WORKS
A complete Van de Graaff generator is shown in Figure 6-1 and is composed of a metal base, an insulating tube, and a spherical high-voltage terminal. Inside the base is a highvoltage power supply that literally sprays ions onto a moving rubber belt. The high-voltage output terminal of the power supply is connected to a comb consisting of tiny metal bristles. The ions launch themselves from the tips of each bristle onto the rubber belt which transports them up to the spherical output terminal. There, metal wipers pick up the ions from the rubber belt and distribute them around the metal terminal. Since an electric charge always resides on the outside of a hollow conductor, the inside of the sphere is able to receive more charges. Thus, a large charge is built up on the sphere with a polarity determined by the output of the high-voltage supply.

PARTS LIST
1 1 1 1 1 1 2 Misc. Output sphere (6 to 12 inches in diameter) AC motor Idler pulley (consisting of a -inch length of -inch PVC pipe, and two 1 /8-inch ID by -inch OD ball bearings, and a 1-inch-long 1/8-inchdiameter steel shaft) Motor pulley (-inch length of -inch PVC pipe) Insulating support (13-inch length of 11/4-inch PVC pipe) Rubber belt (Replacement belt from Edmund Scientific, see text) Ion wipers Base enclosure box, AC line cord, on/off switch. Motor variable speed control, high-voltage ion generator, L brackets, nuts and bolts for construction.

CONSTRUCTION
All parts should be easy to find with the exception of the metal sphere. One suggestion might be to check with companies that sell Van de Graaff generator kits to see if you can purchase the sphere separately. Start construction by cutting a 13-inch length of 1-inch PVC pipe. The 13-inch length is based on using a 26-inch-long rubber belt (unstretched) purchased from Edmund Scientific as a replacement belt for their ready-made Van de Graaff generator. File the ends of the pipe to remove burrs. If the metal sphere you are using does not already have a hole, you must cut one out to match the outside diameter of the pipe, which in this case is just slightly larger than 1 inches. The base of the Van de Graaff generator is constructed from an 8x8x4-inch metal box. A cast aluminum or sheet metal project box available from most electronic supply stores is ideal for this purpose.

HOVER DESIGN NOTES 21

Charge collector assembly

Spherical output terminal

Idler pulley

Charge transfer belt

AC motor High-voltage supply

Motor 6-1 Figure speed control Van de Graaff Generator

Mount the small electric motor to an L bracket in slotted holes to allow for motor height adjustment. Attach the PVC pulley to the motor shaft using an appropriate size bushing. Make sure the pulley is mounted squarely and securely. For best results, add a small crown to the pulley to keep the belt centered. Bolt the L bracket motor assembly to the bottom of the base enclosure so that center of the pulley is aligned with the center of the box. Make sure the motor is mounted squarely and the pulley is at right angles to the sides of the base.

MOTOR SPEED CONTROL

The easiest and least expensive way to add motor speed control to your Van de Graaff generator is by simply wiring the AC motor in series with a ceiling fan speed controller (or a light dimmer controller) found at any electrical or hardware store for a few dollars.

HOVER DESIGN NOTES 22

HIGH VOLTAGE POWER SUPPLY

The prototype Van De Graaff generator uses a modular high-voltage power supply from an electric fence, shown above. However, neon sign transformers, some TV sets, and mail-order companies are also good sources for modular high-voltage supplies with output voltages ranging from 10 to 15kv. You can also build your own variable highvoltage supply from the circuits shown in Figure 6-3 and 6-4. If the output of your high-voltage supply is not already DC, youll need to add a voltage multiplier like the one shown in Figure 6-2. This is a three-stage multiplier which means the voltage at the output will be triple the voltage on the input. The circuit also provides DC rectification. To change the output polarity, simply reverse the input and output connections as shown. Do not use a switch for this purpose, as the proximity of the contacts will cause shorting. Instead, you might use four banana jacks labeled A-D like shown. Changing output polarity then is simply a matter of changing patch cords.
Pos. Output A input B ground C output D floating Neg. Output A output B floating C input D ground A B C D

Figure 6-2 Voltage tripler and instructions for reversing output polarity. S1

F1 2A

BR1
+

IC1
In Adj 1

R1 1K

L Out 3 R3 M 220 R2 5K C3 .1F

+1.25 23VDC

120 VAC

T1 25V 2A

C1 C2 2200F .1F

LED1

C4 1F Ground

Figure 6-3 Schematic for variable low voltage power supply. All resistors are watt.

HOVER DESIGN NOTES 23

FB1

HV Out
FBCT FB2 P1

Q1 2N3055 R4 27
PCT

Q2 2N3055 +1.25 23VDC Ground R5 120-240

P2

Choose lowest potential tap.

T2

Figure 6-4 Schematics for variable low voltage power supply (top), and high-voltage supply (bottom). All resistors are watt except for R4 and R5, which are 10 watt.

PARTS LIST
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 C1 C2, C3 C4 IC1 Q1, Q2 LED1 BR1 T1 T2 S1 Misc. 1K, 1/4-watt 5K potentiometer 220 1/4-watt 27, 10-watt 120 - 240, 10-watt 2200 F, polarized electrolytic, 50V 0.1F disc capacitor 1 F, polarized electrolytic, 35V LM317 voltage regulator IC 2N3055 npn power transistors Light-emitting diode Bridge rectifier, 4 amps 25 volt transformer, 2 amps Flyback transformer (see text) SPST switch, rated 10 amps or better at 120 VAC Heatsink for Q1 and Q2, heatsink for IC1, project box, fuse holder, Fuse (10 amps @ 120 VAC), 18 AWG stranded wire.

HOVER DESIGN NOTES 24

VOLTAGE TRIPLER CONSTRUCTION

Before building the voltage tripler, obtain all the components first so youll have an idea as to their physical size. Do not use capacitors or diodes that are underrated as they could literally blow up. Mount all components on a perfboard being careful to prevent arcing from nearby components. Its usually a good idea to coat the circuit and all components with corona dope to prevent charge leakage.

FLYBACK TRANSFORMER
The high-voltage supply shown in Figure 6-4 uses a flyback transformer salvaged from an old TV set. These transformers are used to supply high-voltage for picture tubes, but also make excellent high-voltage power supplies. You can either recover the flyback transformer from an old TV set or buy one from a surplus supplier. Youll need an openframe type since youll be removing the original primary winding, if any, and replacing it with new windings as shown in Figure 6-5. Start by winding five turns of 18 gauge magnet wire clockwise around the open core of the flyback transformer. Leave at least 6-inch leads. Then wind another five turns (also clockwise) next to the previous winding, also leaving 6-inch leads. Twist the two inner leads together along their entire length. Tightly wrap the two windings with a couple layers of electrical tape. Mark the two outer leads P1 and P2 and the center twisted pair, PCT (for primary center tap). Repeat the same procedure again, this time make two windings of only two turns each. Place these windings directly on top of the first ones, making sure you wind them in the same direction (clockwise). Twist the inner leads together and label them FBCT (for feedback center tap). Label the two outer leads FB1 and FB2. Using a volt-ohmmeter set to low ohms, connect one lead of the meter to the high voltage output of the flyback transformer, and the other lead to one of the taps. The ground tap will be the one with the highest resistance. Solder a length of insulated hookup wire to this tap.
Output
5 Turns

P1 T1
5 Turns

PCT P2

Figure 6-5 Flyback transformer winding diagram.

Ground

HIGH VOLTAGE CIRCUIT

Now youre ready to build the rest of the high-voltage circuit shown in Figure 6-4. The two 2N3055 transistors must be mounted on a heatsink, using suitable insulators and heattransfer paste.

HOVER DESIGN NOTES 25

Mount the modified flyback transformer in a plastic box, and attach the heatsinks to the outside of the box. Lead lengths between the transistors and transformer should be as short as possible. If space permits, mount the completed high-voltage supply inside the base of the Van de Graaff generator. Drill holes in the side of the base for ventilation. Make sure you use a grounded power cord and the metal base is grounded.

FINAL CONSTRUCTION
With the base finished, attach the PVC support column using a plastic flange or L-brackets. Make sure the pipe is perpendicular to the top of the base. Construct the idler pulley for the output terminal as shown in Figure 6-6A. Press the ball bearings into each end of a -inch length of -inch PVC pipe. Like the motor pulley, add a slight crown to the idler pulley to keep the belt centered.
Charge collector assembly 1/8-inch shaft

PVC Idler pulley

Wiper

Ball Bearings Figure 6-7 (A) Idler pulley construction.

Slots for attaching charge collector assembly (4) (B) Charge collector assembly

Cut four slots as shown in Figure 6-6B in the end of the PVC support column for mounting 1 the triangular wiper frame. Drill a /8-inch hole through the support column about half an inch from the end. Thread the rubber belt over the pulley and insert into the support column. Slip the pulley axle through the hole leaving 1/8-inch on each side. Stretch the lower end of the belt over the motor pulley. Construct the output wiper assembly as shown and fit it into the slots in the support column. Adjust the bristles of the wiper so they are just touching the belt and angled in the direction of belt travel.

FINAL TESTING AND TROUBLESHOOTING

Test the tension of the belt near the motor; it should be just tight enough to keep it from slipping off the pulleys. Adjust the belt if necessary by loosening the motor retaining screws and sliding the motor up or down. Retighten the screws. As a final step, adjust both wipers so they just touch the belt and the bristles point in the direction of belt travel. Switch the main power switch on and check to make sure that the belt moves freely. Turn the power off and inspect the belt. It should still be taut. Examine the wipers carefully to make sure they havent moved. It everything looks okay, place the spherical output terminal carefully over the top of the support column until the metal touches the top of the wiper assembly. Turn the power switch back on. Adjust the motor speed control (if present). You should be able to hear the motor speed up and slow down. On a dry day, some static electricity will collect on the output terminal even with the highvoltage supply off. Run the generator for a few minutes. Assemble a testing wand from a

HOVER DESIGN NOTES 26

3-foot length of PVC pipe and a brass coupler. Slowly move the brass end towards the output terminal. You might hear or see a faint spark. Dont worry if you dont; the operation of the Van de Graaff generator is very susceptible to the relative humidity. The higher the humidity, the less static charge that builds up on the rubber belt. Now turn on the high-voltage supply and repeat the same procedure. You should get a longer, louder spark. Try increasing the high-voltage level (if applicable) and observe the change in output. If you fail to get an appreciable spark even with the high-voltage supply at maximum, there may be a problem with the construction of the generator. Turn off the power and inspect the innards. Make sure the wipers are making contact with the belt. Look for any indication that the output terminal might be grounded to the base. Check with a volt-ohmmeter. It should read infinite ohms. An absent or weak spark may indicate a poor electrical connection between the output wiper assembly and the spherical terminal. Check to make sure the metal parts are making good contact. Clean the top edge of the charge collector assembly and the inside of the sphere with alcohol, and if necessary, file to make a good electrical connection. With the Van de Graaff generator working properly, on a fairly dry day (relative humidity less than 25 percent), you should be able to get three to four inch sparks. With even lower humidity, sparks 12 inches in length or longer are not uncommon.

WIRELESS ENERGY TRANSMISSION

Even though the output of the Van de Graaff generator is several hundred thousand volts, it is pure static electricity barely measuring over a few microamps. Therefore, as long as you remain well insulated from the ground, the output is safe to the touch; just dont be surprised when it makes you hair stand on end! To demonstrate how high voltage energy can be transmitted without wires, hold a short (18-24 inch) fluorescent tube near the output terminal and watch the results. Just be sure to wear rubber gloves and hold the tube by the glass and not the metal ends! Van De Graaff Generator design from Gadgeteers Goldmine by Gordon McComb, 1990, Tab Books.

HOVER DESIGN NOTES 27

Ion Detector
A very useful tool for high-voltage research is an ion detector/electric-field meter. With one of these, youll be able to measure the relative amount of ions in the air, check the output of ion generators, locate high-voltage leakage points, verify electric field gradients, and monitor the integrity of your magnetic bottle. The ion detector shown here is a thousand times more sensitive than an electroscope (a charge measuring device that uses metallic leaves that separate to indicate presence of a charge), and can be built for under $25. Housed inside a small hand-held box and powered by a 9-volt battery, the ion detector is capable of measuring positive or negative ions at the flip of a switch.

PARTS LIST
Q1-Q3 Q4-Q6 D1-D4 C1,C2 R1 R2 R3 M1 LED1 S1 S2 J1,P1 MISC. PN2907 pnp transistor PN2222 npn transistor 1N914 diode 470 F, 25v disc 100 M, watt 10 K, watt 5 K potentiometer (linear taper) 100 mA panel meter Light emitting diode SPST mini toggle switch 3PDT mini toggle switch RCA jack and plug pair Plastic project case, perfboard or p.c. board (see text), 9-volt battery clip, metal ground strap (see text), 12-inch length of solid copper wire.

HOW IT WORKS
The ion detector circuit shown in Figure 7-1 consists of two complimentary Darlington transistor pairs for amplifying both positive and negative electric charges. An analog meter displays the output signal of either amplifier as selected by switch S2. High flux levels are indicated by LED1, and meter sensitivity is controlled by potentiometer R3. A jack J1 is provided for connecting to an external collector probe CP1, while two metal strips attached to the sides of the unit provide the necessary path to ground through the users hand.

HOVER DESIGN NOTES 28

C1 470F R1 100M J1

S2 - Polarity select D1 D2 Q1 PN2907 Q4 PN2222 Q2 PN2907 Q3 PN2907 R2 10K LED1 Q5 PN2222 Q6 PN2222 + M1 9V S1 +

C2 470F

D3

D4

R3 5K

Earth ground Figure 7-1 - Ion detector schematic

CONSTRUCTION
To minimize charge leakage and maximize sensitivity, we suggest using the p.c. board layout shown in Figure 7-3. After etching and drilling the p.c. board, mount and solder the components as shown in Figure 7-2. Care should be taken to avoid leaving any sharp edges between the jack J1 and the base of Q1 and Q4. Drill the plastic project box for the meter, potentiometer, switches, LED, and jack. Arrange the front panel as suggested in figure 7-3. Wire all components as shown. Finally, construct a collector probe by soldering a 12-inch length of solid copper wire to an RCA plug. Plug the probe into the jack J1.

TESTING
Install a battery and flip switch S1 to its on position. Rotate R3 fully clock-wise and note that the meter shows a slight deflection. This is due to transistor and circuit leakage and should not be considered an indication of ions. Insert the collector probe (CP1) into J1 and adjust R3 fully clock-wise. Obtain a plastic comb and run it through your hair. Place the comb near the probe. You should get a full scale reading on the meter and the peak level LED should light. Keep in mind though, this effect may be reduced under humid conditions. Take some time to experiment with the ion detector. You will notice some very interesting phenomenon when using this device for detecting residual ion fields, indicating the directional flow of ions, observing the intensity and resultant polarity of static charges, as well as a host of other effects.

HOVER DESIGN NOTES 29

D1 D2 Q2 J1 R1 J1 J C2 D2 D3 Figure 7-2 Ion detector parts layout. Q4 Q5 Q6 S2 (3 of 3) Q1 J J R2 LED1 + + 9V R3 Q3 S2 (1 of 3) S1 S2 (2 of 3)

M1

PEAK DETECT milliamperes 50 0 100

ON

POS

SENSITIVITY

NEG

Figure 2.10 (b) Ion detector front panel.

2 inches
ION DETECTOR

Figure 7-3 P.C. board template and suggested front panel layout.

The original design for the ion detector was provided by Bob Iannini of Information Unlimited, with some modifications.

HOVER DESIGN NOTES 30

HOVER DESIGN NOTES 31

Gauss Meter
With the price of digital gauss meters starting around $500, youll be happy to know you can build this one for about $20. The meter uses a linear Hall-effect sensor, manufactured by Sprague (but also available from other manufacturers), to detect the strength of nearby magnetic fields. The output of the operational amplifier connects to a standard digital or analog volt-ohmmeter (set to low-range volts). The higher the reading, the greater the magnetic force.
S1 +9VDC IC2
2

UGN-3503

C1 .1F

R2 R1 5K 1K

IC1 741
4

R3 2M
6

To meter

Figure 8-1 Gauss meter schematic

PARTS LIST
R1 R2 R3 C1 IC1 IC2 S1 MISC. 1k 5k , 15-turn potentiometer 2 M potentiometer 0.1 F disc LM741 op amp IC Sprague UGN-3503 Hall-effect sensor (or equivalent) SPST switch PC Board, 9V battery clip, 9V battery, plastic case

HOVER DESIGN NOTES 32

CONSTRUCTION
Parts placement is not critical for the gauss meter. However, youll probably want to build the circuit on a perfboard or pc board and mount inside a small plastic case for portability. IC2 could be glued directly against the inside of the case or mounted in a plastic probe and connected to the case by a length of 2-conductor shielded audio cable no longer than 12 inches.

GAUSS METER CALIBRATION

In order to obtain meaningful measurements from your gauss meter, you will need to calibrate it. To do this you will need to generate a magnetic field of known intensity, place the meter in the center of this field, and adjust R2 to obtain the equivalent reading on your volt-meter. A suggested test setup may be made from a coil consisting of 40 turns of 16 AWG hookup wire with a diameter of 8 inches and a length of 1 meter (approximately 39 inches). It is probably easiest to suspend the coil in the air and measure its length 1 meter from the floor. Place the gauss meter in the exact center of the coil and with the coil connected to a variable DC supply, adjust for 1 amp of current. The coil will generate 50 -5 mT (5.03 x 10 T ) for every amp of current according to the formula for a magnetic field: B = N x I x 4p x 10-7. The Gauss Meter design is from an article entitled Build a Magnetic-Field Meter, by Reinhard Metz, Radio Electronics Magazine, April 1991

HOVER DESIGN NOTES 33

Research Update
Since this booklet was originally written, HoverTech has made several important discoveries. These discoveries led to the concepts below.

ION-MAGNETIC FORCE FIELD

Air flow is provided by a battery-powered electric fan at the center of a disk-shaped platform, the underside of which is concave. Around the bottom edge of the disk is either a ring-shaped UV light source, a channel for diffusing microwaves, or an array of ion emitter needles to provide localized ionization. As air passes through this region, it becomes highly ionized with both positive and negative charges. Because of the mixed charges, the net charge of the ionized air remains zero and only individual ions that happen to contact the ground are discharged. Also built into the rim of the disk is a ring of electromagnets or rare-earth permanent magnets providing a vertical magnetic field perpendicular to the flow of ions. According to the formulas in fig. 2-1 on page 6, the influence of the magnetic field causes the ions to spin in tiny circles with positive and negative ions spinning in opposite directions. In order to keep the ions spinning in the same place, the magnetic field is set up with an outwardly increasing flux gradient as illustrated in fig. 2-2 on page 7. As more and more ions become captured in this fashion, a dense barrier of air is formed which serves to contain the pressurized air cushion on the inside.

ACCOUSTICAL WAVE FORCE FIELD

Another idea which had become an increasingly popular topic on our former website message board is a sound barrier. It is well known that sound at the right frequency and magnitude can cause objects to resonate and even self destruct. Therefore, it should be possible to focus sound waves, perhaps by creating a standing wave around the perimeter of the disk using multiple ultrasonic transducers so that their frequencies add in a Fourier series.

COLD PLASMA
Due to a recent advancement in cold plasma technology, it may eventually be possible to levitate vehicles simply by circulating cold plasma underneath them. Since cold plasma has a net neutral charge, it wont discharge into the ground. In addition, cold plasma has the ability to be steered by magnetic fields. And unlike hot plasma which can reach the core temperature of the sun, cold plasma is cool enough to touch. Presently, however, cold plasma is very expensive to produce and is limited to ambient pressure. But you can bet, well be keeping an eye on its progress.

PLASMAGNETIC LEVITATION
As of June 2007, HoverTech believes Plasmagnetic Levitation may hold the key to a practical hover vehicle. It works by ionizing the air underneath the vehicle into a plasma most likely by photoionization. An onboard alternating magnetic field induces current loops in the plasma which repel according to Lenzs law. Since the current loops have nowhere to go once pinned against the surface, the vehicle experiences a levitation force. The same concept may also be used for propulsion simply by vectoring the magnetic field. More info at hovertech.com.

HOVER DESIGN NOTES 34

Parts Sources
EDMUND SCIENTIFIC CO. 101 E. Gloucester Pike Barrington, NJ 08007-1380 (609) 573-6250 http://www.edsci.com INFORMATION UNLIMITED Box 716, Amherst, NH 03031 (603) 673-4730 http://www.amazing1.com STAR-TRONICS P.O. Box 683 McMinnville, OR 97128 Specializes in laser optics but also carries a tabletop Van de Graaff generator, cloud chamber, Tesla coil, a superconductor experimenters kit, and a wide assortment of permanent magnets. A good source for high-voltage diodes and capacitors, plus plans and kits for high-voltage power supplies, Van de Graaff generators, Tesla coils, ion detectors, and lots of other high-tech gadgets. Surplus electronics at very affordable prices. Stocks a wide variety of capacitors (including highvoltage), TV flyback transformers, and resistors.

SPRAGUE SOLID STATE Hall-effect sensor, transformers and capacitors. 3900 Welsh Rd. Willow Grove, PA 19090 (215) 657-8400 http://www.vishay.com/vishay/sprague/ REX RESEARCH P.O. Box 1258 Berkeley, CA 94701 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE Patent and Trademark Office Washington, DC 20231 JEFF BERTRAND P.O. Box 755 Hazel Green, AL 35750 http://ro.com/~jjb/ Patents and articles on unusual scientific discoveries and phenomenon. Provides general information on patents. For information on specific patents, check a library that offers copies of old patents or consult a patent attorney. Jeff builds and sells homemade Van de Graaff generators and accessories for students on tight budgets. $75 gets you a battery-powered VDG Generator capable of producing sparks up to 3 inches.

HOVER DESIGN NOTES 35