CE 2004: Heat Transfer

Dr. John Brammer

Room 214 Tel. 3380 e-mail j.g.brammer
Heat Exchanger Design 6 lectures, 2 example classes
Radiation 2 lectures, 1 example class
Key texts: Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering
Volume 6, Chapter 12
Holman, Heat Transfer
Butterworth, Introduction to Heat Transfer
Module topics
Heat exchanger types
Design of a shell and tube heat exchanger
tube-side film coefficient
shell-side film coefficient
overall heat transfer coefficient
Heat transfer from finned tubes
Natural convection
Radiation heat transfer
What are heat exchangers for?
To get fluid streams to the right temperature
for the next process
To condense vapours (third year)
To evaporate liquids (third year)
To recover heat to use elsewhere
To reject low-grade heat
To drive a power cycle i.e. to heat a
working fluid
Concentric tube heat exchanger
One tube inside another
Normal size
0.25 to 200m
2
(2.5 to 2000 ft
2
) per unit
Built of carbon steel where possible
Note multiple units are often used

Advantages/disadvantages of
concentric tube heat exchanger
Advantages
Easy to obtain counter-current flow
Can handle high pressure
Modular construction
Easy to maintain and repair
Disadvantages
Only moderate c (0.9), AT (5K)
Becomes expensive for large duties (>1MW)
Thermal effectiveness
( )
in in
C m
in out
T T
T T
p
, 2 , 1
min

= c

Stream temperature rise divided by the theoretically
maximum possible temperature rise
T
1,in
T
1,out
T
2,out
T
2,in
Shell and tube heat exchanger
Size per unit (10 - 1000 m
2
)
Easy to build multiple units
Made of carbon steel where possible
Essentially multiple concentric tube
Flow in shell-and-tube heat exchanger
Complete shell and tube heat exchanger
Advantages/disadvantages of
shell-and-tube heat exchanger
Advantages
Extremely flexible and robust design
Easy to maintain and repair
Can be designed to be dismantled for cleaning
Very many suppliers world-wide
Disadvantages
Only moderate c (0.9), AT (5K)
Requires large plot area (removal of bundle)
Not cheap for lower pressures and temperatures
Plate (or gasketed plate)
heat exchanger
Plates hung vertically and
clamped in a press or frame.
Gaskets direct the streams
between alternate plates and
prevent external leakage
Plates made of stainless steel or
higher quality material
Plates corrugated to give points
of support and increase heat
transfer
Chevron Washboard
Plate types
Corrugations on
plate improve heat
transfer and give
rigidity

Many points of
contact and a
tortuous flow path
Flow in plate heat exchanger
Alternate plates (often same plate types inverted)
Gaskets arranged
for each stream to
flow between
alternate plates
Advantages/disadvantages of
plate heat exchanger
Advantages
High heat transfer, high c (0.95), low AT (1K)
Compact, cheap
Easily dismantled for cleaning
Flexible, plates can be added or removed
Disadvantages
Limited temperature and pressure (gasket material)
Limited capacity (port size)
Prone to blockage (solids), leakage, gasket damage
Air cooled heat exchanger
Air blown across finned tubes (forced draught type)
Can suck air across (induced draught)
Finned tubes
Air cooled heat exchanger bundle
Advantages/disadvantages of air
cooled heat exchanger
Advantages
Air is readily available always
Low maintenance costs, negligible air side fouling
Simple mechanical design
Natural convection operates if power fails
Disadvantages
Noisy low-noise fans are available but inefficient
Cold weather protection problems
Less effective than cooling tower
Plate-fin exchangers
Formed by brazing
aluminium plates separated
by sheets of finning
Noted for small size and
weight, but limited range
of fluids
Very high c , very low AT
Main use in cryogenic applications (air liquefaction)
Must only be used with clean fluids
Cooling towers
Base filled with packing over which water is sprayed
Cooling by air flow and evaporation
Air flow driven by forced or natural convection
Must make up the cooling water lost by evaporation
Agitated vessels
Used for batch heating
or cooling of fluids
An agitator and baffles
promote mixing
A range of agitators are
used
Often used for batch
chemical reaction

Distribution of types
in terms of market value in Europe
Shell & Tube
42%
Other Tubular
5%
Plate & Frame
13%
Other Plate
4%
Other Proprietary
2%
Air Coolers
10%
Cooling Towers
9%
Waste Heat
Boilers
5%
Other Heat
Recovery
10%
Design method for shell-and-tube
heat exchangers
Very wide range of temperatures
(up to 600
o
C), pressures (up to
300/1400 bar), fluids, duties
Can be built in many materials
Many suppliers
Repair can be by non-specialists
Design methods and mechanical
codes have been established from
many years of experience
Over 80% of new exchangers for oil-refining, chemical,
petrochemical and power companies in Europe are S&T.
The design procedure (single phase)
1. Specification
2. Physical properties
3. Overall heat transfer
coefficient estimation
4. Pass arrangement, mean
temperature difference

5. Heat transfer area
6. Allocation of fluids
7. Tube size and number
8. Tube-side heat transfer
coefficient
9. Tube layout (inc. baffle
spacing), shell type
10. Bundle and shell diameter
11. Shell-side heat transfer
coefficient
12. Overall heat transfer
coefficient
13. Tube-side and shell-side
pressure drops
14. Cost estimation
15. Optimisation
Estimate tube-side heat
transfer coefficient
Calculateshelldiameter
Estimatetube-sideheat
transfercoefficient
For process fluid, we usually know
type, mass flow, inlet and outlet temperature, pressure, AP
MAX
For service fluid, we usually know
type, mass flow, inlet temperature, pressure, AP
MAX

We must estimate fouling factors
e.g. water 0.0001-0.00025 m
2
K/W, air 0.0001-0.0002 m
2
K/W
We must calculate duty (i.e. overall heat transfer rate)
from Q = m
1
C
P1
AT
1
for process fluid (C
P
at mean temp.)
We must calculate outlet temperature for service fluid
from T
2OUT
= (Q / m
2
C
P2
) + T
2IN
for fluid 2, iterating for C
P

For each fluid, we will need (at mean temperature):
specific heat, thermal conductivity, density, viscosity
Specification and physical properties
Estimating U
O
, overall heat transfer
coefficient

We need to estimate overall heat transfer coefficient at
this stage to allow an initial calculation of total heat
transfer area. A better value will eventually be
calculated, and iterations can be performed if necessary.
Typical values for overall heat transfer coefficients in
shell-and tube heat exchangers may be obtained from
various sources, e.g.:
C&R6 Table 12.1 and Figure 12.1
Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, Table 11.3 (7
th
Edn.)
Engineering Science Data Unit (Data Item 92013)
Shell-side and tube-side passes
Generally one or two shell-side passes
Tube-side passes usually achieved by header partitions
One-pass shell (Type E) Two-pass shell (Type F)
Longitudinal baffle
One tube pass two tube passes four tube passes
Calculation of total heat transfer area
We estimate the area (based on tube O/D) from
) (
) (
ln
) ( ) (
IN OUT
OUT IN
IN OUT OUT IN
LM
t T
t T
t T t T
T

= A
T A U Q
O O
A =
For pure counter-flow heat exchangers
LM
T T A = A
where
For shell-and tube heat exchangers, pure counter-flow
only obtained for 1:1 and 2:2 designs (shell:tube passes).
What about other (more common) designs?
HEAT EXCHANGER
SHELL SIDE
TUBE SIDE
T
IN
T
OUT
t
IN
t
OUT
Area for non-counter-flow exchangers
Theoretical correction factors, F
T
, have been derived for
each non-counter-flow design of heat exchanger:
LM T O O
T F A U Q A =
F
T
values are less than 1, but do not design for F
T
< 0.8
R=0.1 R=0.8 R=3.0 R=15
F
T
0.6
1.0
0.0 1.0 0.5
S


IN IN
IN OUT
t T
t t
S

=
IN OUT
OUT IN
t t
T T
R

=
Allocation of fluids
Put dirtier stream on the tube side - easier to clean
inside the tubes
Put high pressure stream in the tubes to avoid thick,
expensive shell
When special materials required for one stream (e.g.
due to corrosion or very high temperatures), put that
one in the tubes to avoid expensive shell
Cross-flow gives higher film coefficients than flow in
tubes, hence put fluid with lowest film coefficient on
the shell side
If no obvious benefit, try streams both ways and see
which gives best design
Tube size, tube-side velocity
Most common tube O/Ds 19.05 and 25.40 mm, with tube
thicknesses 2.11 and 2.77 mm (carbon steel)
Standard tube lengths 2.44, 3.66, 4.88, 6.10 and 7.31 m

Total number of tubes given by:

Tube side velocity then given by:

For liquids, typically 1.0 < u
T
< 2.5 m/s
For vapours and gases, 5 < u
T
< 70 m/s depending on
pressure
l d
A
N
o
O
T
t
=
2
4
i T
P
T
d N
N m
u
t
=

Tube-side heat transfer coefficient
The Dittus-Boelter equation
for non-viscous liquids
n 0.8
Pr Re u N 023 . 0 =
n = 0.4 for heating, 0.3 for cooling
The Sieder-Tate equation for
viscous liquids
14 . 0
027 . 0
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
W
0.33 0.8
Pr Re u N

Useful general form (Colburn)

14 . 0
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
W
0.33 0.8
Pr Re C u N

C = 0.021 (gases), 0.023 (non-viscous liquids), 0.027 (viscous liquids)

Fully developed turbulent flow in smooth pipes (Re > 8000)
NB properties evaluated at mean bulk temperature along pipe
Tube-side heat transfer coefficient
Heat transfer coefficient for viscous flow can be
estimated from:
14 . 0
33 . 0
33 . 0
) ( 86 . 1
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
W
i
L
d
Pr Re u N

or 3.5, whichever larger

For non-viscous flow, coefficient is 1.62, no correction
Note that tube length-to-diameter ratio has a large
effect on heat transfer coefficient below ~ 500
For transition flows (2000 < Re < 8000), evaluate h for
both laminar and turbulent flows and use lower value
Laminar flow in smooth pipes (Re < 2000)
Heat transfer factor, j
h

Heat transfer data may be usefully correlated using a
heat transfer factor, j
h
, which allows laminar

and
turbulent regimes to be represented on one graph

We then have for non-viscous flow:

33 . 0
67 . 0
Re 62 . 1
|
.
|

\
|
=

L
d
j
i
h
2 . 0
023 . 0

= e R j
h
Laminar:
Turbulent:
Pr Re
Nu
St , Pr St
14 . 0
67 . 0
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

W
h
j

Definition:
Tube arrangements
Recommended pitch = 1.25 x tube O/D
Triangular and rotated triangular arrangements give
more tubes per unit area
Square arrangement gives lower heat transfer rates
Square and rotated square layouts give cleaning lanes
pitch, p
Triangular Rotated
triangular
Square Rotated
square

transverse pitch, p
tr

Flow
Tube bundle diameter
Tube bundle outside diameter given by
n
T
o B
K
N
d D
1
|
.
|

\
|
=
where K and n are empirically derived for triangular and
square arrangements, p = 1.25 d
o

Tube shell diameter
Derived from tube bundle diameter plus shell-to-bundle
clearance (shell inside diameter minus bundle outside
diameter)
Shell-to-bundle
clearance depends on
shell design
tube bundle removal
(cleaning, tube
repair/replacement)
differential expansion
Bundle diameter, m
0.2 1.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
100
0
80
60
40
20
S
h
e
l
l

I
/
D

-

b
u
n
d
l
e

O
/
D
,

m
m

Pull-through floating head
Split-ring floating head
Outside packed head
Fixed and U-tube
Baffle design
Typical ratio (D
S
/l
B
) ~ 5
Gives good heat transfer and
acceptable pressure drop
l
B
D
S
Shell-side (cross-flow) velocity
The shell-side velocity u
S
is calculated at the shell equator
using the minimum cross-flow area A
S

This is the area without tubes, (D
S
l
B
), multiplied by a
blockage factor b which is a function of tube arrangement
p
d
b
o
=1
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
p
d
b
o
1 155 . 1
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
p
d
b
o
1 414 . 1
Triangular, square

Rotated triangular

Rotated square
u
S
is then calculated
using:

S
S
A
m
u

=
typically for liquids,
0.3 m/s < u
S
< 1.0 m/s
Shell-side heat transfer coefficient
using Bells method
Method originally set out by Bell (1960, 1963)
Ideal cross flow coefficients are corrected for
non-idealities which occur in real shell-side flows
Reasonably accurate while remaining simple and
suitable for manual calculations
Other methods exist e.g. Kerns method (less
accurate), Tinkers method (complex and tedious)
Bell gives a similar method for shell-side pressure
drop (see later)
Shell-side non-idealties
Window
effects
Tube
bundle
bypass
Baffle
leakage
Number
of rows
crossed
Bells method for shell-side heat
transfer coefficient
L B W N oc o
F F F F h h =
Where
h
oc
is the heat transfer coefficient for cross-flow over
an idealised tube bank
F
N
allows for the number of tube rows crossed
F
W
corrects for some tubes being in the window
F
B
corrects for bypass flow around the bundle
F
L
corrects for leakage through and around the baffle
Ideal cross-flow coefficient
14 . 0
33 . 0
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
W
h
o oc
Pr Re j
k
d h
Nu

As for tube-side
coefficient:
Definition of j
h
same as for tube-side
j
h
is similarly plotted against Re - C&R Figure 12.31
But values are NOT the same as for tube-side !
IMPORTANT: Re is calculated using u
s
, the shell-
side velocity calculated at the minimum cross-flow
area A
S
at the equator of the bundle. Also Re and Nu
use tube O/D d
o
.

Correction F
N
:
number of tube rows crossed
Mean h depends on the number of rows
crossed, because of the turbulence generated
as the fluid flows through the bundle
Re > 2000, turbulent: use C&R Figure 12.32



100 < Re < 2000, transition: use F
N
= 1.0
Re < 100, laminar: not well established
Note: no. of rows N
cv
is
between adjacent baffle tips
N
cv

Use C&R Figure 12.33:
F
W
plotted against R
W
, the
ratio of the number of tubes
in the window zones to the
total number in the bundle
Correction F
W
:
window correction factor
Accounts for the flow through
the window zones not being
ideal cross-flow
Example:
R
W
= 8/28
= 0.286

F
W
= 1.08
Correction F
B
:
bypass correction factor
Accounts for flow that bypasses the
bundle in a vertical sense i.e.
through the gap between the bundle
and the shell wall
Use C&R Figure 12.34:
F
B
plotted against (A
B
/A
S
)
A
B
is the bundle-shell clearance area = l
B
(D
S
D
B
)
A
S
is the minimum cross-flow area
Correction F
L
:
leakage correction factor
Accounts for horizontal leakage flow
i.e. through the gaps between tube and
baffle, and between baffle and shell
A
tb
is the tube-to-baffle clearance area, per baffle
A
sb
is the shell-to-baffle clearance area, per baffle
A
L
= A
tb
+ A
sb
, and A
S
is the minimum cross-flow area
(

+
=
L
sb tb
L L
A
A A
F
2
1 |
C&R Figure 12.35 gives
|
L
plotted against (A
L
/A
S
)
Overall heat transfer coefficient
U
O
defined on basis of tube outside area:
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
i
o
w
o
i
o
i
i
o
o O
d
d
k
d
d
d
r
h
r
h U
ln
2
1 1 1
y
w

T
hot
T
cold
d
i

d
o

y
w

Next steps
Compare calculated U
O
with assumed value
If necessary, modify design in second iteration
using calculated U
O

But also need to consider tube-side and shell-
side pressure drops these must remain within
specification
AP = f (velocity, dimensions, friction factor)
Tube-side from familiar pipe flow equations (fluids)
Shell-side using Bells method (similar to h)
Tube side pressure drop
General equation
2
4
2
u
d
L
f p
i
= A
837 Re ,
Re
16
s = f
837 Re ,
Re
264 . 0
0035 . 0
42 . 0
> + = f
Laminar flow
Turbulent flow in
a rough tube
Result is corrected by various factors accounting for
tube inlets and outlets, header flow reversal, and
header ports
Shell-side pressure drop by
Bells method
Similar in concept to Bells method for h
O
Cross-flow, window, end zone and nozzle pressure
drops calculated separately and summed
OUT IN
N N E W B C B S
p p p p N p N p A + A + A + A + A = A 2 ) 1 (
Ap
C
Ap
W
Ap
E
Ap
N
Shell-side pressure drop by
Bells method
Cross-flow and end pressure drops from
correlation for ideal tube bank, corrected for
by-pass and leakage

Window pressure drop from specific
correlation for window flows, corrected for
leakage only

Nozzle pressure drops from correlations for
sudden expansions/contractions
Estimating cost
The cost estimation method given here is based only on
equipment cost
Note: installation costs can be as high as equipment cost
in some cases
Cost estimation often done by multiplying the calculated
area, A, by a cost per unit area
But, when comparing exchangers, U and A vary widely
from type to type. It is also difficult to define A if there
is a complicated extended surface.
Hence, ESDU give tables of C values where C is the
cost per UA - using 1992 prices
Heat transfer from finned tubes
For tube heat transfer where the external fluid is a
gas, and coefficients are very low
Aim is to maximise heat transfer area per unit tube
volume, by adding transverse fins to outside of tube
L-fins
Formed by tightly
winding L-shaped
strip
G-fins
Formed by locking
strip into groove
on tube
Extruded fins
Formed by
extruding fins on
outer tube
Local heat transfer coefficient for
finned tubes
Briggs and Young correlation for
banks of tubes in cross-flow with
plain transverse fins
Length term in Nu and Re is tube o.d.
Cross-flow Re taken at A
S

(no fins)

h is referenced to fin area
t
f
p
f

l
f

1134 . 0 2 . 0
33 . 0 681 . 0
134 . 0
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
f
f
f
f f
t
p
l
t p
Pr Re u N
Overall heat transfer coefficient
from finned tubes
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
i
o
w
o
i
o
i
i
o
o O
d
d
k
d
d
d
r
h
r
h U
ln
2
1 1 1
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
o
o
r
h
1
is referenced to un-finned tube area BUT assumes
We use:
f
o
f
f f
o
o
A
A
r
h E
r
h
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
1 1 1
A
f
= fin area
A
o
= bare tube area,
E
f
= fin effectiveness
(< 1, typically 0.95)
( ) Pr , Gr Nu f =
Heat
high density
low density
where Gr is Grashof number
2
2 3
Gr

| Tl gA
=
forces viscous
forces buoyancy
=
From a dimensional analysis of natural convection:
| = coefficient of volume expansion g = gravity
l = characteristic length AT = T
surface
T
distant fluid

Natural convection
( )
n
Pr Gr Nu C =
Many workers have studied
natural convection from
various surfaces to a range
of fluids. Generally:
Natural convection
where values for C and n
are tabulated for different
geometries and regimes
see C&R Vol. 1 Table 9.5
Results for natural convection from
horizontal surfaces
Natural convection
Fluids between two surfaces
For heat transfer between two large parallel plates where
surface dimensions are large compared to separation:
1 =
k
Q
Q
( )
25 . 0
Pr Gr 15 . 0 ~
k
Q
Q
( )
33 . 0
Pr Gr 05 . 0 ~
k
Q
Q
Gr Pr < 10
3

10
4
< Gr Pr < 10
6

Gr Pr > 10
6

Where Q
k
is the rate heat
would be transferred by
conduction alone, and Q
is the actual rate.

Characteristic length in
Gr is plate separation.
Natural convection from pipes to air
Calculation of heat loss to environment from pipes
Geometry Gr Pr C
''
n
Vertical
tubes
s 10
9
1.37 0.25
> 10
9
1.24 0.33
Horizontal
tubes
s 10
9
1.32 0.25
> 10
9
1.24 0.33
then h = C
''
(AT )
n
l
(3n-1)
where
Assume the environment is air at 294K

Radiation heat transfer
Black body radiation
Radiation properties
Grey bodies and real surfaces
The view factor
Radiation exchange between two surfaces
Two-surface enclosures
Gas radiation
Furnaces and fired heaters
Radiation heat transfer
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10 -11 -12
Thermal
radiation
Infrared Ultra-
violet
rays
X-rays
Radio
waves
Visible
log , m
3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10 -11 -12
Thermal
radiation
Infrared Ultra-
violet
rays
X-rays
Radio
waves
Visible
3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10 -11 -12 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10 -11 -12 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10 -11 -12
Thermal
radiation
Infrared Ultra-
violet
rays
X-rays
Radio
waves
Visible
log , m
Energy density of radiation per
unit area per unit wavelength
f (wavelength,
temperature)
=
Stefan-Boltzmann law for
black body radiation
If we integrate the function for energy density over all
wavelengths, the total energy E
b
(W/m
2
) is given by:
4
T E
b
o =
o = 5.669 x 10
-8
W/m
2
K
4
(Stefan-Boltzmann constant)
T is absolute temperature, K
E
b
is the emissive power of an ideal radiator, i.e one that
absorbs all radiation incident on it and radiates across the
whole spectrum the so-called black body
Energy distribution - black body
Wiens law:
T
max
= 0.00288
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0
2 4 6 8 10
Wavelength (m)
1400K
1100K
850K
550K
M
o
n
o
c
h
r
o
m
a
t
i
c

e
m
i
s
s
i
v
e

p
o
w
e
r

(
k
W
/
m
2
.

m
)

Radiation properties
= reflectivity
(fraction reflected)
o = absorptivity
(fraction absorbed)
t = transmissivity
(fraction transmitted)
+ o + t = 1
Incident radiation Reflected
Absorbed
Transmitted
For opaque bodies, t = 0 (we will only consider opaque bodies)
For black bodies, t = 0, = 0, o = 1
Reflected radiation can be diffuse (uniform in all directions) or
specular (angle of reflection = angle of incidence)
Kirchhoffs identity
Body of area A in a black enclosure,
receiving radiant flux G and emitting
emissive power E, at equilibrium.

is the emissivity of the
body, c


EA = GA o

If replace body with black body of
same size,
E
b
A = GA (as o = 1)
GAo
EA
body
black enclosure
o =
b
E
E
|
|
.
|

\
|
b
E
E
and c = o
Thus
Grey bodies and real surfaces
The monochromatic emissivity, c

, is defined as the
ratio of the monochromatic emissive power of the
body to that of a black body at the same temperature
and wavelength:

c =
b
E
E
For grey bodies, c

= constant (< 1) and

For real surfaces, c

= f (, T) = constant
Tabulated values for many real surfaces
4
T E =
Energy distribution - real surfaces
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
M
o
n
o
c
h
r
o
m
a
t
i
c

e
m
i
s
s
i
v
e

p
o
w
e
r

(
k
W
/
m
2
.

m
)

0
2 4 6 8 10
Wavelength (m)
c

= c = 1 (black body)
c

= c = 0.6 (grey body)

real surface
The view factor
(also known as shape, angle or geometric factor)
The view factor, F
ij
, is the fraction of the radiation
leaving surface i that strikes surface j directly.
By definition, the energy leaving surface 1 and arriving
at surface 2 is Q
12
= E
b1
A
1
F
12

And the energy leaving surface 2 and arriving at
surface 1 is Q
21
= E
b2
A
2
F
21

So the net exchange is Q
net 12
= E
b1
A
1
F
12
E
b2
A
2
F
21
The view factor
Net exchange is Q
net 12
= E
b1
A
1
F
12
E
b2
A
2
F
21
But if T
1
= T
2
, then Q
net 12
= 0 and E
b1
= E
b2
So A
1
F
12
= A
2
F
21
, or more generally A
m
F
mn
= A
n
F
nm
This is known as The Reciprocity Rule

F can be easily derived
for simple geometries:
otherwise results are
presented graphically
dA
1

A
2

D
R
e.g. small-area
element to disk
2 2
2
12
4 D R
D
F
+
=
The view factor
The Summation Rule

The sum of the view factors from surface i of an enclosure to all
surfaces of the enclosure, including to itself, must equal unity

1
1
=

=
N
j
ij
F
The Superposition Rule

The view factor from a surface i to a surface j is equal to the
sum of the view factors from surface i to the parts of surface j

N
ij ij ij ij
F F F F + + + = ...
2 1
The Symmetry Rule

Two or more surfaces that possess symmetry about a third
surface will have identical view factors from that surface

Radiation exchange between two
enclosed surfaces
Enclosed surfaces exchange heat with each other only
One or both surfaces
grey:
More complex we use the
concept of radiosity
Both black surfaces: Easy, as no radiation is reflected,
re-absorbed, re-reflected etc. etc.
( )
4
2
4
1 12 1
4
2 21 2
4
1 12 1 2 1
T T F A T F A T F A Q
net
= =

o o o
4
1 12 1 2 1
T F A Q o =

4
2 21 2 1 2
T F A Q o =

and:
Radiation exchange between
two enclosed grey surfaces
( )
( ) ( )
2 2 2 12 1 1 1 1
4
2
4
1
12
/ 1 / 1 / 1 A F A A
T T
Q
c c c c
o
+ +

=
We will consider four special cases of a two-surface enclosure:
Small convex object in a large enclosure
Infinitely large parallel plates
Infinitely long concentric cylinders
Concentric spheres
Making use of the concept of radiosity, the total flux leaving a
surface, we can show that for two enclosed grey surfaces:
Two-surface enclosures
( )
( ) ( )
2 2 2 12 1 1 1 1
4
2
4
1
12
/ 1 / 1 / 1 A F A A
T T
Q
c c c c
o
+ +

=
1
2 Q
Small convex object in a large enclosure
F
12
= 1, A
1
/A
2
~ 0
( )
4
2
4
1 1 1 12
T T A Q = o c
1
2
Q
Infinitely large parallel plates
F
12
= 1, A
1
= A
2

( )
1 / 1 / 1
2 1
4
2
4
1 12
+

=
c c
o T T
A
Q
Two-surface enclosures
( )
( ) ( )
2 2 2 12 1 1 1 1
4
2
4
1
12
/ 1 / 1 / 1 A F A A
T T
Q
c c c c
o
+ +

=
Infinitely long concentric cylinders
F
12
= 1
A
1
/A
2
= r
1
/r
2
( )
( )
2 1 2 1
4
2
4
1
1
12
/ 1 / 1 / 1 r r
T T
A
Q
+

=
c c
o
Concentric spheres
F
12
= 1
A
1
/A
2
= (r
1
/r
2
)
2

2
1
Q
2
1
Q
( )
( )( )
2
2 1 2 1
4
2
4
1
1
12
/ 1 / 1 / 1 r r
T T
A
Q
+

=
c c
o
Gas radiation
Most monatomic and diatomic gases are transparent to
thermal radiation.
HOWEVER many polyatomic gases are not, both
absorbing and emitting considerable amounts at
certain frequencies
o and c are functions of (P
g
l), where P
g
is gas partial
pressure and l is path length through gas. Curves are
available for certain gases (e.g. H
2
O).
If the gas is particle-laden (e.g. flame), then further
emission/absorption, f(particle concentration, size)
Furnace and fired heater design
Radiant heat exchangers, in which the
source of heat is the combustion of a fuel
Fired heaters
Process stream heated by passage through a
coil or tube-bank enclosed in a furnace: wide
variety of applications
Steam boilers
For raising saturated or superheated steam for
use in processes or for power generation
Fired heaters
Radiant
tubes
Radiant
coil
Radiant
tubes
Convection
bank
Burner Burner
Burners
all radiant,
vertical tubes
all radiant,
helical coil
radiant/convective,
helical coil