M.N.

Sharath kumar 16
BOHRS ATOM MODEL

Although matter appears to be continuous, yet it possesses a definite particle structure at
microscopic level. The ultimate particles of matter are known as atoms and molecules. After the
discovery of electron in 1897 by JJ Thomson, several atom models have been proposed from
time to time to explain structure of atom. The various atomic models are as follows:
1) Thomsons atom model
2) Rutherfords nuclear atom model
3) Bohrs atom model
4) Sommerfelds relativistic model
5) Vector atom model
6) Wave mechanical model.

1) Thomsons atom model

The first atom model was proposed by J.J. Thomson in 1898. According to this model, an atom
is a uniform sphere of positively charged material in which just sufficient number of electrons
are embedded to balance the positive charge.
In order to explain the origin of spectrum, electrons were assumed to vibrate about their
equilibrium positions .
Thomsons model explains stability of atom, thermionic Emission &
photoemission.

It was soon discarded as it failed to explain entire hydrogen.Spectrum
and large angle scattering of o- particles.

Note: Since the electrons in the sphere of positive charge resemble plums in a pudding,
Thomsons model is sometimes referred to as plum pudding model.

2) Rutherfords atom model
To explain the experimental results of scattering of o particles by thin metal foils,
Rutherford in 1911 proposed an atomic model.
According to Rutherfords model, an atom consists of tiny nucleus in which its positive charge
and nearly all of its mass are concentrated. Electrons revolve around
the nucleus in circular orbits.
Rutherfords atom model explained the results of the o particle
scattering experiment as follows:
a) Most of the o- particles incident on the metal foils pass
undeviated. This means atom is almost hollow and the electrons due
to their small size do not apprecially affect their motion.
b) The o-particles which pass close to the positively
charged nucleus suffer strong electrostatic repulsion and are scattered through large angles.

Rutherfords model was open to two serious objections.

1) The revolving electrons are constantly accelerated towards the nucleus. According to
electromagnetic theory these accelerated electrons continuously radiate energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves. Hence they will move in spiral path and ultimately fall into the nucleus
and the atom would collapse. In practice atom does not collapse.


M.N.Sharath kumar 17
2) According to this model, electrons can revolve in all possible orbits and so they
should emit radiation of all frequencies giving continuous spectrum. This is not in agreement
with experimental observation because atomic spectrum is a discrete line spectrum.


3) Bohrs theory of atomic structure

Bohr, using the ideas of classical physics, plancks quantum theory and Einsteins
photon concept formulated an atomic model of hydrogen atom. The model explained the
stability of the atom and the origin of spectral lines.
Bohrs theory is based on the following postulates:

1) An atom has a central positively charged nucleus.

2) The electrons revolve around the nucleus in certain allowed orbits where they do not radiate
out energy. These allowed orbits are called stationary orbits.

3) The centripetal force necessary for circular motion of electrons is provided by the electrostatic
attraction between the nucleus and electrons.

4) The stationary orbits are those in which the angular momentum of the electron is an integral
multiple of
h
2t
, where h is plancks constant.

5) The emission or absorption of energy takes place when an electron jumps from one stationary
orbit to another.
Expression for radius of an allowed orbit
Consider an atom of atomic number Z. The charge on its nucleus is Ze. Let an electron of
mass m and charge -e revolve round the nucleus in the nth allowed circular orbit
Of radius
n
r . Let
n
v be the linear velocity of the electron in the orbit.

As the centripetal force is provided by electrostatic force
of attraction

2
n
2
n n
mv 1 Ze.e
.
r 4 r
=
tc


2
2
n
n
1 Ze
mv . (1)
4 r
=
tc

From the third postulate of Bohr,

n n
nh
mv r
2
=
t


n
n
nh
v (2)
2 mr
=
t

Using (2) in (1),

2 2 2
2 2 2
n n
n h Ze
m.
4 m r 4 r
=
t tc


2
2 2
n
mZe r n h t = c

M.N.Sharath kumar 18

2
2
n 2
n h
r (3)
mZe
c
=
t

This is the expression for the radius of the nth allowed orbit.
Note: 1) For the I allowed orbit of hydrogen atom,
1
r 0.53 = A 0.053nm =
2)
2
n 1 2 3
r n . r : r : r . .. ::1: 4: 9: ........... o
3)
2
n 1
r n .r =

Expression for orbital velocity of the electron
Repeat the derivation of expression for radius upto equation(2).
Dividing (1) by (2),

2 2
n n
n n
mv 1 Ze 2 mr
. .
v 4 r nh
t
=
tc


2
n
Ze
v (4)
2 nh
=
c


Expression for total energy of the electron in an allowed orbit
Repeat the derivation of expression for radius upto equation (3).
Kinetic energy of the electron is

2
k n
1
E mv
2
=

2
k
n
1 1 Ze
E . . (4)
2 4 r
=
tc
Using (1)
Potential energy of the electron is given by
p
E = Electric potential at appoint Charge of
distant
n
r from the nucleus electron

n
1 Ze
e
4 r
=
tc


2
p
n
1 Ze
E . (5)
4 r
=
tc

Total energy of the electron in the nth allowed orbit is given by

n k p
E E E = +

2 2
n n
1 1 Ze 1 Ze
. . .
2 4 r 4 r
=
tc tc


2
n
1 1 Ze
1 . .
2 4 r
| |
=
|
tc
\ .


2
n
1 1 Ze
. .
2 4 r
=
tc


M.N.Sharath kumar 19

2
2
2
2
1 1 Ze
. .
n h 2 4
mZe
=
c tc
t
Using (3)

2
4
2
n 2 2
mZ e
E
8 n h
=
c
(6)
This is the expression for the energy of the electron in the nth orbit. Negative sign indicates that
the electron is in the bound state.

Note: 1) For the I orbit of Hydrogen atom,
1
E 13.6eV =
2)
n 2
13.6
E eV
n
=
3) Electrons in the outer orbits have greater energy than electrons in the inner orbits.
Spectral series of Hydrogen atom
In a normal hydrogen atom, the electron is in the ground state (I allowed orbit) for which
n=1. When the atom is given some energy, the electron absorbs only quantized amount of
energy and goes to a higher orbit. Under this condition the atom is in excited condition and is
unstable. In a short time the electron takes transition from its orbit
2
n to a lower orbit
1
n
emitting radiation of wavelength given by
2 2
1 2
1 1 1
R
n n
| |
=
|

\ .

Wavelengths emitted due to all possible transitions form the spectrum of Hydrogen.
Spectrum of hydrogen is divided into spectral series shown in the table

Name of the series

Transition
to
1
n
Transition
From
2
n
Region of the
Spectrum
Lyman

1 2,3,4,

Ultraviolet

Balmer

2 3,4,5,

Visible
Paschen

3 4,5,6,

Infrared(IR)
Brackett

4 5,6,7,

Far IR

Pfund

5 6,7,8,

Extreme IR
Humphrey 6 7,8,9, Radio frequency

Note: 1) For I member of Lyman series
1
n =1 &
2
n =2. is longest.
For II member of Lyman series
1
n =1 &
2
n =3 & so on.
For the limiting member of Lyman series,
1
n =1 &
2
n =. is shortest.
Similarly for other series.

2) I,II,III,IV, members of Balmer series are called H
o
, H
|
, H

, H
o
,. Lines
respectively.



M.N.Sharath kumar 20
Energy level diagram
For Hydrogen atom , the energy of the nth level is given by

4
2
n 2 2
me
E
8 n h
=
c


n 2
13.6
E eV
n
=

1 2 3
E 13.6eV, E 3.4eV, E 1.51eV,... = = =
Taking these energies on a linear scale, horizontal lines are drawn which represent the energy
level diagram of H-atom. The arrows ending at n=1,2,3,4,5 & 6 represent the transitions
responsible for Lyman, Balmer, Paschen, Brackett, Pfund and Humphrey series respectively.


Ionisation and excitation potential:
Ionisation is the process of removing an electron from its orbit to infinite distance from
the nucleus i.e, to n= state. The ionization energy of an orbit is the energy required to remove
the electron from that orbit to the orbit corresponding to n=. For example, ionization energy
for fifth orbit is
5
E E

i.e,
5
E as E 0

= . Ionisation potential in volt is numerically equal

to ionization energy in electron volt.
Excitation is a process of shifting an electron from its orbit to a higher orbit. The energy
required for this process is called excitation energy. For example, excitation energy required for

M.N.Sharath kumar 21
an electron in the second orbit to be excited to fifth orbit is
5 2
E E . Excitation potential in volt
is numerically equal to excitation energy in electron volt.

Short comings of Bohrs theory
1) It is applicable to single electron systems( H, He , Li ,...
+ ++
).
2) It fails to explain fine structure of spectral lines.
3) It cannot explain splitting of spectral lines in magnetic field (Zeeman effect)
and in electric field(Stark effect).
4) It cannot explain variation in the intensity of spectral lines.


Sommerfelds atomic model
When the spectral lines of hydrogen were closely observed by high resolution
spectrographs, it was found that the lines were not well defined single lines, but consisted of a
number of closely packed lines. This is known as fine structure of spectral lines. Bohrs theory
was unable to explain the existence of such closely spaced spectral lines.
In order to explain fine structure of spectral lines, Sommerfeld developed a new model of the
atom called the relativistic atom model in 1915. According to his model
1. The path of an electron around the nucleus is in general an ellipse with the
nucleus at one of the foci. The circular orbits proposed by Bohr form a special
case of this.
2. The velocity of the electron is different at different points of the orbit. This
causes a relativistic variation in the mass of the orbiting electron and this has to
be taken into account.

The Sommerfelds theory introduces quantum number n
|
called azimutal quantum number in
addition to the principal quantum number n. The orbits with n
|
=1,2,3, are described by the
letters s,p,d,f, etc. Also n
|
can take n values.
For n=1, n
|
=1
For n=2, n
|
= 1, 2
For n=3, n
|
= 1, 2, 3

Vector atom model
Sommerfelds model of the atom successfully experienced the fine structure of spectral lines of
hydrogen atom. But it could not explain the correct number of fine structure lines and relative
intensity of spectral lines. The theory also failed to explain the complex structure of alkali
metals like sodium.
Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit attempted to explain the complex spectra of atoms on the basis of the
vector model of the atom. The main features of this model are
1) Spatial quantization
2) Electron spin
Spatial quantization
Bohr orbits are quantized only with respect to their size, shape and energy. But quantum theory
demands the quantization of the direction of orientation of these orbits in space. The orientation
of the electron orbits should be with respect to a fixed reference axis. The direction of an
external magnetic field applied to the atom is chosen as reference. If u is the angle between the
preferred direction and the direction perpendicular to the plane of the orbit, then according to the

M.N.Sharath kumar 22
concept of space quantization, u can take only certain discrete values. The value of u is
determined using the concept that the total angular momentum of the electron is a constant
during its orbital motion.
Electron spin
As the electron orbits round the nucleus it also spins about an axis of its own. The electron has
an intrinsic angular momentum called a spin angular momentum. According to quantum theory,
spin is quantized. A new quantum number called spin quantum number is introduced. As both
orbital and spin motions are quantized in magnitude and in direction, they are considered as
quantized vectors. The model built on these concepts is called vector atom model.
Stern and Gerlach experiment provided the experimental basis for the vector atom model.