Week 1 - Chapter 1 1 Ppm= 1 pound of contaminant in 1 million (500 tonnes); 1 sec in 11.

6 days 1 ppb= 1 sec in 32 years, 1 pound in 500 000 tonnes Pollutant: any chemical that adversely affects the usefulness of resources; chemical out of place: happens because no natural or human process is 100% efficientcarelessness/poor technology aggravates the increase of pollution Human Impacts: 1) 2) 3) 4) human changed about 1/3 to of the land surface co2 increased by 30% since industrial revolution used up more than 50% of accessible water of all bird species are extinct

Pollution moves: pollution greatest near source eg. pollution in water: 1) 2) 3) 4) urban runoffpaved; roads, farm runoff atmospheric deposition(power plants create pollution in air which moves) dump from landfillcontaminate groundwater&surface water point source pollutionindustries pour dump into oceans/lakes/waters)

Pollution changes form: microbial degradation (decomposition) physical factors (heat, uv, radiation) overwhelming natural systems (eg. paper mills, food processors) increase pollution that cannot be degraded and also permanently degrade water qualities Biosphere 2: to test and see if people can live and work in a closed environment oxygen levels lower by .5%/month (concrete walls absorbed co2, plants could not create oxygen) Nitrous oxide reached levels to kill brain Vital species died/extinct Overwhelmed by cockroaches and ants Pollution Extremes: Bhopalpollution devastation @ india safety standards and maintenance ignored; a combo of tech., legal, organizational errors gauges for temperature were unreliable, refrigerator to keep MIC temp down was turned off, gas scrubber for neutralizing escaped gases was turned off, flaming tower to burn off remaining gases was turned off, water curtain to neutralize remaining gases could not reach flare tower, MIC storage tanks were filled beyond capacity tank exploded and a deadly cloud of MIC spewed over the neighbourhood; blown by wind, the cloud covered most of Bhopal 3k died, 200-500k injured Less Obvious Pollution:

PESSIMISTIC: similar reactions will add up to a bigger reaction, combinations of reactions may be catastrophic(may magnify one another), differing sensitivity of mammals OPTIMISTIC: act as antidotes, animal/human body has dealt with it for many years, it only became of concern now but these pollutions cannot of been detected 20-30 yrs ago Earth Summit @ Rio de Janiero in 1992 172 governments went, of which 108 were @ level heads Review of Patterns of production, replace fossil fuels w alternative sources of energy, suggest reliance of public transit rather than vehicles, growing scarcity of water Came up with climate change conventionlead to Kyoto protocol), not to carry out activities in indigenous people which would cause environmental degradation (b/c they cannot support themselves to fix these environmental issues) 3rd World countries(Slums) -slums do not have: water, sanitation, drainage, sewers, waste collection -more young slum dwellers -impoverished children die from drinking water that are contaminated w human waste -90% of 3rd world country homes burn dry manure, strawbad ventilationpolluted indoor air -rural areas: children breathe to what is equivalent to 2 packs of cigs/day - environmental pollution works hand-in-hand with economical state (inverse) I=PAT (Environmental Impact of Human = Population x Affluence x Technology) Population: Population Growth Rate: [ (Birth + Immigration) (Death + Emigration) ] % Population Size Megacities: cites with over 10 million people. 4 out of 23 are in developed countries cities become black holes that soak up resources/ecological output of regions Affluence/Consumption: Wealthy societies are more responsible for economic degradation and resource depletion; they consume more resources and degrade more natural resources Technology: The Tyranny of Small Decisions: post hoc; A caused B

Week 2 - Chapter 7 -Sea levels have risen approximately 120m since last ice age -temperature of surface water-3000m depth of water/temp of near-surface atmosphere: risen approximately 0.6 degree Celsius in the 20th century -glaciers are in retreat (142/144) + thinninghindu kush/hamalyan glaciers are water to asia but retreatingseveral greater flows for couple decades than drought -green house effect: ability of atmosphere to capture + recycle energy emitted by earth surfaceCO2, chluroflurocarbons(CFC), methane, NOozone enhances greenhouse -CO2 increased dramatically due to industrial revolution; human factors; fossil fuel combustion for industry, motor vehicles, space heating, electricity generation -biological pump: phytoplankton absorbs co2, then dies/gets eatenforms marine snow on sea groundtherefore creating a bump to bring co2 from surface to floorgiving carbon to sea creatures near seafloor: CO2 + H2O= H2CO3 (moderates PH in ocean) Montreal Protocol (1987): decrease in emission of chlorofluorocarbons worldwide (46 nations) Methane: rice cultivation, landfill(decomposition), animal grazing, gas + oil extraction Nitrous Oxide (N20): increased at 0.2-0.3%/yearland use conversion (deforestration), fossil fuel/biomass burning, soil fertilizationreducing nitrogen held in vegetation and soil Kyoto Protocol(adopted in 1997): reduction of co2 by 5.2% below 1990 emissions by 2012 -Stabilizing greenhouse emissions at a rate that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference w the climate system; agree to reduce co2 and 5 other greenhouse gas emission; had a cap and trade system where quotas can be bought and sold, carbon tax; currently cover over 160 countries and over 55% of greenhouse gases - 2 categories; developed countries (Annex 1 with GHG emissions reduction targets;failure to meet target will have reduction targets decreased by 30%--have options of flexible mechanisms and emissions tax ) and developing countries (non-annex 1 with no reduction obligations) -ineffective as it excludes two of the main emission emitters; china and us -canada is among one of the 3 countries unwilling to extend ratifying Kyoto protocol beyond 2012 Global Warming Controversy -ongoing dispute of human effects on global warming and the actions that should be implemented to avoid possible undesirable effects -current consensus shows consistent long-term trend that global warming is largely human-caused; -opposition of enormous economic expense putting geopolitical and economic situation in danger with little short-term benefits -correlation and casualty; just b/c temp increased since industrial revolution, does not refer to post hoc -shorter solar cycle (more sun activity) = increased temperature -urban heat island effects: cities have higher temperatures because buildings tend to re-emit the heat from sun

El Nino Oscillation -el nino is warming; la nina is cooling -normally: east winds blow warm water to the pacific ocean (west). Thermocline layer: separation of warm and cool waters. Eastern region: water cools down the air, air becomes too dense to precipitate therefore dry (eg. peru). Western region: water warms the air, therefore heavy rain -el nino: warm water from west blows to east (increase temperature of water in east), piled up warm water flow to south America. Tropical thunderstorms move along with the warm water, and as it moves toward the east (dry region), forest fire occurs therefore, drought -la nina: unusually cool water in east region Hurricanes -it is currently the most active 9 consecutive years of hurricane action -warm air evaporateswinds comes together and pushes upwinds flow outward the stormhumid air rises for the cloud for the stormlight winds from outside aggravates the storm

Week 3 Chapter 6 -Nitrogen oxide (wet) nitric acid, (dry) nitrate -Sulfuric dioxide (wet) sulfuric acid, (dry: when particles/gases stick to the ground) sulfate *In both conditions: sun speeds up transformation* Acidity - PH levels (measurement of number of H in a solution)logarithmic of hydrogen ions -7 is neutral (equal of H and OH)means 1 in 100 000 000 (referring to concentration) -natural rain typically have a ph between 4.5 5.6, rain w ph <5.0 is acidic (acidic rain is typically due anthropogenic reasonshuman made)most common in industrial heartland (eastern n.a.)contains nitric acid, sulfuric acid, hydrocluoric acid -in Ontario: 50% acid rain come from us. In us: 10% acid rain come from canada -formula = ph = -log10 (h+ OR mol/L) -6 (snail + crayfish die), 5 (fish die, eggs dont hatch), 4.5-5 (bass n trout die), 4 (many flies and frogs die) Acid deposition -anthropogenic emissions (these are the causes of acid rain: carbon monoxide, sulfuric dioxide, nitric dioxide)transportation(46%), fuel combustion -so2 sulfur oxide (us: electric utitlites, Canada: industrial) -nitric oxide no2 (transportation) -from 1995, deposition and emmissions have lowered tremendously by 2005 -calcium and limestone (in soils) raise ph level therefore, making acid rain more netural (buffering) -bases in the atmosphere (eg. ammonium) counteract acidity when exposed with water turns into ammonia (ph 11) -bases in water (magnesium, sodium, potassium) Crown Trees Dying -due to acid rain (weakening of leaves, breaking down the nutrients before trees can absorb, run off) - run off of acid into rivers, streamsmore buffering in thick soilsmore buffering in Midwestern, less in n.y. mountainside -mountain forests are more acidic (acidic clouds and fog), strip away essential nutrients Acidic Lakes -acid enters through dry (atmosphere that touches water) and wet (acid rain, snow) -spring acid shock (sudden increase in temperature, sudden drastic increase of PH due to melting snow) -sulphuric acid and aluminum kills the ability for fish to take in oxygen (breaks gills, inability to respiration/ mucus) reduce emissions (SO2 + NOxhave done so through emissions allowance and rade), understand buffering capacities (have been damaged and used to capacity; cannot be reversed)

Week 4 Chapter 5 -troposphere: lower layer of the atmosphere; stratosphere: upper layer of the atmosphere (hotter b/c absorbs heat from the sunby ozone) Carbon Monozide -combustion of organic matterlack of oxygen for oxidization (cannot turn into carbon dioxideincomplete product of combustion; highly toxic) -sources: motor vehicles, burning of houses, burning of biomass -hemoglobin: affinity of CO is 240 times higher than w CO2 -CO poisoning: lack of oxygen going to tissue; there is oxygen in blood but not being released to tissues (eg. central nervous system; heart; brain has lack of oxygen) Ozone (O3) -known for its smell after lighning storm, during the summer -many industrial and summer applications -caused by motor vehicles; causes smog Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) -burning of sulfur ; volcano creates the smell of SO2 -results in haze; sources: fossil-fueled combustion produces 2/3 of SO2 Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) -contains a various amount of nitrogen and oxygen -NO2reddish layer over many urban areas -sources: combustion (cars, electric utilities) ; results: haze Particulate Matter, Aersoles, Fine Particles -various composition, various size, other pollutants can BECOME pm; metals -PM10 = pm of 10 diameter or less -natural sources: wind-blown dust, volcanoes, forest fires, sea spray -human sources: burning of fossil fuels in motor vehicles (PM10), power plant -primary emission: blown directly into atmosphere; secondary: emitted as gas and forms particles in atmosphere -health effects: asthma, lung cancer, premature death, cardiovascular disease -large particles are filtered in the nose/lungs, PM10 settles in bronchi, PM2.5 penetrate into lungs (deposits plaque in arteries; causing vascular inflammation and atherosclerosis; hardening of arterieslead to heart attacks PM2.5 can cause this heart problem even in short-term explosure in elevated concentrations), <100 travel to organs (pass through cell membraneseg. similar brain damage as Alzheimer disease)eg. emissions from modern diesel engines (DPM: diesel particulate matter) -caused 20k to 50k deaths in n.a.; 200k deaths in Europe -US EPA STANDARDS: PM10 50u/m3; PM2.515u/m3 Lead; source of PM -emitted during metal mining/combustion -used to be emitted from gasoline combustion, painting indoors -developing countries; lead still in gasoline, little powerplant regulation; no lead-battery acid recycling regulation VOC: Volatile Organic Chemicals -definition: organic chemicals that have high enough pressure to vaporize to gas and enter atmosphere (easily evaporate); EPA definition: any organic that participates in photoreaction (whether it is volatile or not) -sources: combustion (motor vehicles)inefficiently burning hydrocarbons which then release in air; petroleum refineries, electrical plants, chemical plants, Trees, Paint-thinners

-VOCS are 2-5 times higher indoors than outdoors (sick building syndrome) -vapour VOC pollution; released into the air can contaminate soil and groundwater -results: fog; haze; -categorized in methane and non-methane voc. Other voc creates ozone and prolong methane life in at. Hazardous Air Pollutants: Benzene (Benzol) C6H6 -industrial solvent, production of drugs, dye, plastics, rubber, synthesize with petroleum -death; dizziness, headaches, doziness, rapid heart rate, unconsciousness -long-term exposure: affects blood; bone marrow damage, decrease in red blood cells, excessive bleeding, decrease immune system HAP: FORMALDYHEDE (organic) -plywood, insulators, cosmetics -caused by combustion of hydrocarbons: motor vehicles, smoke from forest fire, tobacco smoke; reaction of sunlight and oxygen w atmosphere methane and other hydrocarbons Inorganic: Mercury; quicksilver; HG -minamata bay, japan: dumping of mercurycaused 3000 suffered deaths and many deformities and mercury poisoning; neurological syndrome Desertification -expanding deserts; degradation of land in drylands -affects 1 billion people; 41% of earth; most popular in Africa affecting 65% of agricultural lands -sources (human): land misuse, livestock overgrazing, deforestration, poor irrigation, over-cultivation of soils Air-pollution in 3rd world countries -children are affected in over 200 cities; exposed to NO2, PM and SO2 2-8 times higher than WHO standards; 80% of all induced are children under 5 b/c children inhale more rapidly than adults -missing the help needed in 3rd world countrires; where needed most Massive Indian Ocean Haze -air pollution is the leading premature death in Asian cities Eastern Europe/Black Triangle -sometimes outside motivation may stimulate environmental clean-up -eastern Europe countries want to join eu; therefore they must follow environment policies/laws to join -Black Triangle: Czech, Poland, Germany; extremely high NO2, SO2, patriculates: 96% emission now: no more pollution but in turn all the plants/industries are closed down

Week 5 Chapter 5/ Chapter 4 Chapter 5 (continued) Pollution from Space -MOPITT: measurements of pollution in the troposphere; can only detect CO however CO can traces NO + other combustion pollutant; used to map pollution levels/output -storms, winds, water carry pollution -1997 indonesia set a rainforest fire in purpose to plant rubber, rice, timber however, for 2 months a haze was formed, affecting Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, autrailia, bruneil as well -spring time haze in arctic; originated from forest fire/agrilcultural fire from Siberia & Kazakhstanblob of air pollution -2001; a gobi storm (mammoth quantites of PM), dust reached colarado & boulder (25% less sunlight) -china is building another great wall (grass and trees) to reduce winds by 50% and dust by 99% Traveling dust -dust contributes to 100u/m3 of PM (compared to US epa standards of pm10=15u/m3) -dust storm carries disease (bacteria, fungi, virus) -dust kills coral reefs by depositing nutrients/pollutants that can immune system, reproduction, induce pathogens in reef environment, increase speed of pathogen microorganism reproduction -Lake Chad (Northern Africa)due to over-pumping of irrigation and drought; the lake is now 5% of 1960sit is now pumping dust everyday Chapter 4 The Stratosphere and Ozone -stratosphere: contains 10% of molecules in the atmosphere of which 90% is ozone which absorbs 95% of UV (otherwise it will reach + damage human, animals) Making and Remaking Ozone (formulas) -breaking down oxygen (high uv) breaks O2 to single individual atoms: O2 + UV = O1 + O1 -forming ozone: these O1 atoms are very unstable there synthesizes: (2) O1 + (2) O3= (2) O3 -breaking down ozone: UV breaks O3 to o2 and o1s: O3 + UV = O2 + O1 -regenerating ozone: (2) O1 + (2) O2 = (2) O3 Ozone depletion: CFC(Chlorofluorocarbons) and Halons released at ground levelreach stratospherereacts with UV releases chlorine and brominedestroys stratosphereic-ozoneless ozonemore UV (light)to earthadverse effects on plant(ground)/photoplankton(ocean) growth, animal skin/eyes/immune -ozone exists in 2 atmospheric layers: troposphere (bad ozone) turns into urban smog; harmful to breathe and can kill/damage crops, trees and other vegetation; stratosphere (good ozone)absorbs UV, protecting life on Earth from harmful UV Chlorine One ClO atom can catalyze and destroy many thousands of o3 molecule; therefore low concentration of chlorine/bromine=high impact on destruction of O3 CFCs -thousand times more potent than CO as it absorbs different wavelengths of infrared radiations that other gases dont absorb -cools down the stratosphere; which may balance out the warming of the stratosphere (due to strong absorbance of infrared radiations)

Chapter 5/Chapter 6 -stratopshere has 10% of atmospheres air but 90% of ozone which traps 95% of the ozone that harms ground level beings -ozones natural cycle: 1) O2 + UV = O + O 2) O2 + O = O3 (ozone) 3) O3 + UV = O2 + O 4) O2 + O= O3 (ozone) -suns uv breaks down CFCs to CHLORINE and BROMINE; which are catalysts to destroying ozone; CL and BR destroy ozone disproportionately -CFCs warming potentials compared to CO2 are 4000-8000x higher; they have a shorter life span (-100) -1976 ozone depletion was extremely high and actions were made to lower it; until 1986; levels went back to 1976 -montreal protocol was signed by 46 contries to phase out CFC; it was supported by companies because it gave an opportunity to discover compounds that were more profitable (1987) -since 1976, ozone has been depleting in Antarctica; up to 60% of ozone depleted during spring (septnov) antarctica is more vulnerable due to PSCs (formed during tremendously cold weather) which is trapped in pole vortex, therefore no ozone depletion as there are no air mixing PSCs provide surfaces to decompose into highly reactive chlorine and chlorine monoxide; UV during spring helps increase reaction; polar vortex disappears; but polar air mixes with atmosphere therefore ozone levels off to original -some thinning of 15% are found in arctic; 5-8% in middle altitude (us, can, Europe) -volcanic eruptions exert sulphur which turns into sulphuric acid in stratosphere; kills ozone because acts like PSCs (a surface for decomposition of ozone killers) 1) human pollutions 2) carbonyl sulfide (naturally produced in oceans) -particles alone do not deplete ozone; must work with ozone-depleting chemicals -arctic ozone hole: oct 2010 mar 2011 (up to 80% of ozone depleted up to 20km in atmosphere) -Tibet: 2006; 2.5 million sq kilo of ozone hole -ozone absorbs UVB; depletion of ozone increases UVB (highly energy uv radiation) on surface level -ozone depletion does NOT evidently link to increase of skin cnacer; b/c UVB not linked to skin cancer; UVA has proven to have links but ozone cannot absorb it -uv radiation reaching earth differs according to the time of day, season and latitude(equator = higher rad; 1000x higher than poles) -troposphere ozone absorbs UV as well; ozone polluted areas absorb MORE uv as do other pollutants -ozone is stratosphere is much longer (b/c continuously created) as opposed to troposphere ozone; therefore cannot compensate -UVB increases squamous and basal cancer; UVB makes pyriminde bases in DNA which cause a dimer; transcription errors as DNA duplicates (not fatal) -1% ozone depletion; 2% increase in this type of cancer -malignant melanoma: much more fetal (20% in all cases); caused by both UVA/B; no certainty on impact of UV

-plankton was extinct 2 millions years ago during a supernova; spurt of nitrogen oxides (ozone depletion); plankton is extremely susceptible to UV n is extremely important to marine food web -crops: rice needs cyanobacteria to live(take away nitrogen); cyanobacteria is sensitive to UV -CFCs absorb certain wavelengths of UV that are not absorbed by other gases (4000-8000x higher than co2) -CFC may cool the ozone b/c usually stratosphere keeps warmth within the layer; w/ ozone destroyed; stratosphere is cooler; may balance out -halons and cfcs are bad for ozone; halocarbons, hcfc, hfc are sub of halon & cfcs; not as dramatic -water soluble chemicals are not as ozone depleting; rain out of atmosphere -cfcs are not too heavy to reach stratosphere; long lifetime; wind turbulence; distributed to strato -natural tropospheric chlorine is more significant (eg. volcanoes, ocean spray are 4-5 times of manmade); regardless tropospheric chlorine is nothing compared to STRATOSPHERIC CHLORINE -chlorine from ocean spray is soluble therefore does not reach stratosphere -cfcs are not soluble and is long-live; reachs stratosphere -stratosphere; organic sources dominate (chlorine kills ozone); CFCs and methyl chloride -methyl chloride is 1 atom of chlorine, CFC is multiple -(1987)montreal protocol on substances that deplete the ozone designed to protect ozone; phase out production of chemicals that kill ozone -CFCs leveld off or decreased; halon continue to increase due to its importance to firefighting (but slowed)will decrease starting 2020 -HCFCs increased to replace CFCs in refridgerating agents -HCFC and HFC is now considered as anthropolegenic global warming; increase use and is 10000x more potent than co2

Week 7, Chapter 7 Water Pollution and Eutrophication -eutrophication is the when a body of water is enriched with nutrients which results in a growth of aquatic animals; resulting in depletion of dissolved oxygen (nutrients can be input by human and nuture) eutrophicationalgae bloomaquatic life dies -algae produces oxygen; when algae dies there is no oxygen -cyanobacteria natural produces cyanobacterial toxins that hurt liver (hepatotoxins) and nervous systems (neurotoxins) -factors that favour cyanobacteria dominance 1) higher temperature optima 2) low light-energy requirement 3) suprerior uptake (low co2-high ph hypothesis) 4) low tn/tp 5) buoyancy hypothesis (eg. gas vehicles barrier) -photosynthesis: process where inorganic matters converts into organic matter -syptoms of eutrophication: 1) algal productivity 2) phosphorus concentration 3) taste and odour problem 4) chlorophyll concentration 5) growth of cladophora 6) oxygen depletion