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Reproduction and Development

I. Semen Production 1. Spermatogenesis: continuous and prolific process of the production of mature sperm A. Where? seminiferous tubules (testes) B. Stages 1. Mitosis- general epithelium cells (spermatagonia; stem cells) --> more 2n cells 2. Diploid cells --grow larger--> primary spermatocytes 3. Meiosis 1- primary spermatocytes --> secondary spermatocytes - DNA has been replicated and the cells will go through the tetrad stage with crossing over, then metaphase 1 which leads to separation of homologous chromosomes during anaphase 1 and telophase 1 - ultimately results in 2 haploid cells (1n= 23 but each chromosome is made of 2 sister chromatids attached at the centromere 4. Meiosis 2- secondary spermatocytes --> 2 spermatids (4 spermatids total) that are HAPLOID 5. Cell differentiation- spermatids + Sertoli cells (nurse cells) --> spermatozoa (sperm cells) Unabridged a) nucleus shrinks by losing water, and the chromosomes become closely packed into a small volume b) RNA eliminated, leaving only DNA c) nucleus changes shape and elongates/narrows d) golgi apparatus --gives rise to--> acrosome (hydrolytic enzymes to dissolve the egg membrane during fertilization) e) nucleus+ acrosome = head f) centrioles from meiosis --give rise to--> flagellum g) mitochondria become concentrated in midpiece to form 1 continuous body --twists spirally around axial filament and centrosome--> helical mitochondria h) main part of tail (flagellum of sperm cell/spermatozoon)=axial filament - strengthened by: protein fibers i) most cytoplasm discarded. sperm cell still has plasma membrane j) Sperm detach from Sertoli cells as spermatagonia --> epididymis (storage and maturation; gain motility) --> motile sperm - process takes 65-75 days Abridged a) nucleus b) RNA c) elongates d) acrosome e) head f) tail g) midpiece h) cytoplasm discarded i) Sertoli --> epididymis C. Role of hormones 1. FSH- pituitary - stimulates Meiosis 1; acts on seminiferous tubules to increase spermatogenesis by stimulating primary spermatocytes to undergo Meiosis 1 to form secondary spermatocytes) 2. LH- pituitary - stimulates interstitial cells (Leidig cells) to produce androgens (testosterone) which in turn stimulate sperm production 3. Testosterone- interstitial cells (Leidig cells) - stimulates secondary spermatocytes --> mature sperm - primary and secondary sex characteristics 2. Accessory glands- add secretions that mix with sperm during ejaculation and are expelled a. two seminal vesicles i) mucus- to protect sperm from the acidity of the vagina ii) amino acids iii) fructose iv) prostaglandins b. prostate gland i) thin, milky, alkaline fluid containing mineral ions- to counteract acidic conditions of the vagina c. Bulbourethral gland i) viscous fluid 3. # sperm/ejaculation: 100-650 million II. Oogenesis (ova production) A. Process Unabridged 1. Primordial germinal epithelium cells (2n) --mitosis--> more diploid 2n cells (oogonia) 2. Diploid 2n cells (oogonia) --grow larger (differentiate)--> primary oocytes (2n) 3. Primary oocyte --start the first division of meiosis--stop during prophase 1--> Primary follicle (primary oocyte + single layer of follicle cells) 4. Primary Oocyte --completes the first division of Meiosis--cytoplasm unequally divided--> two haploid nuclei: one large secondary oocyte (n) and one small polar cell (n) 5. Secondary Oocyte --starts second division of meiosis--stops in prophase 2--> Mature follicle (secondary oocyte in follicular fluid, surrounded by three layers of follicle cells) 6. Mature follicle bursts during ovulation and the egg is released, still a secondary oocyte. 7. After fertilization, the secondary oocyte finishes Meiosis 2 and forms one ovum (with a sperm nucleus already inside of it) and one polar cell/body (the second one. The first polar body was formed after Meiosis 1 from the primary follicle.

See step #4). The first and second polar bodies do not develop and eventually degenerate. Abridged 1. G.E. cells --mitosis--> more 2n 2. 2n cells --larger--> P.O. 3. P.O. --Meiosis--Prophase 1--> P.F. 4. P.F. --Prophase 1--End of Meiosis 1--> 1 S.O. + 1 polar 5. S.O. --Meiosis 2--Prophase 2--> M.F. 6. M.F. --bursts ovulation--> egg 7. M.F./S.O. + Fertilization --Prophase 2--end of Meiosis 2--> ovum + 2nd polar B. Egg Structure (diameter= 110 um) 1. haploid nucleus 2. cytoplasm (or yolk) containing fat droplets 3. cortical granules: small vesicles that participate in the fertilization reaction and help form the bar to polyspermy - located along periphery of egg 4. zona pellucida: layer of gel composed of glycoproteins 5. corona radiata: layer of follicle cells 6. plasma membrane 7. first polar cell that may have divided underneath the plasma membrane 8. two centrioles III. Spermatogenesis vs. Oogenesis Spermatogenesis Frequency of gamete production When gametes are released When gamete production begins Continuation # gametes produced per meiosis Millions daily During ejaculation Sperm formation during puberty Continues throughout adult life Four sperm Both Both start with proliferation of cells by mitosis Both involve cell growth before mitosis Both involve the two devisions of meiosis IV. Puberty A. Males 1. penis and testes grow larger 2. prostate gland and seminal vesicles begin to secrete fluid 3. the larynx grows larger, causing the voice to become deeper 4. pubic and armpit hair start to grow 5. facial hair start to grow 6. skeletal muslces grow larger 7. production of sperm released during ejaculation B. Females 1. vagina and uterus grow larger 2. vagina begins to secrete fluid 3. breasts grow larger 4. pubic and armpit hair start to grow 5. pelvix grows larger/wider 6. fat is deposited under the skin of the buttocks and thighs 7. start to follow the menstrual cycle and to release eggs V. Fertilization (IVF)- positive chemotaxis where egg chemicals attract sperm; occurs in the oviduct 1. Arrival of sperm - sperm are attracted by a chemical signal released by the egg. - sperm swim up the oviduct to reach the egg - sperm try to push through the layers of follicle cells around the egg 2. Binding - sperm breaks through the corona radiata (layers of follicle cells) and reaches the zona pellucida - receptors on the plasma membrane of the sperm bind to receptors on the zona pellucida, triggering the acrosome reaction 3. Acrosome Reaction - the acrosomal cap detaches from the sperm and the hydrolytic enzymes inside the acrosome are released - these proteases digest a route through the zona pellucida for the sperm to travel through, allowing the sperm to reach the plasma membrane 4. Fusion - the plasma membranes of the sperm and egg fuse - the sperm nucleus enters the egg and joins the egg nucleus - the tail and mitochrondria usually remain outside - fusion triggers the flow of Ca++ (calcium) ions, which in turn causes the cortical reaction. 5. Cortical Reaction - cortical granules (small vesicles) move to tge plasma membrane of the egg and fuse with it - cortical granules then release their contents by exocytosis - Bar to polyspermy: enzymes from the cortical granules cause the glycoproteins of the zona pellucida to cross-link, making it hard and preventing the entry of any more sperm 6. Mitosis - nuclei do NOT fuse; undergo mitosis separately - same centrioles and microtubules Oogenesis One every 28 days About day 14 of menstrual cycle by ovulation Early stages of egg production happen during fetal development Becomes irregular then stops at menopause One egg

- two-cell embryo produced VI. Pregnancy and childbirth 1. Conception: fertilization of an egg by a sperm - occurs in the oviduct - cleavage (cell division) begins after about 24 hours (mitosis without growth) 2. Pregnancy (gestation): condition of carrying one or more developing embryos in the uterus; averages 266 days a. Early development * Stages i. as cleavage continues, the zygote develops into a ball of cells passing down the oviduct to the uterus - morulla: solid ball of cells ii. the embryo reaches the uterus in 3-4 days and develops into a hollow ball of cells called a blastocyst - this stage develops about 1 week after fertilization iii. the blastocyst implants into the endometrium in the next 5 days - the blastocyst bores into the endometrium which grows over the blastocyst - for the first 2-4 weeks of development, nutrients are obtained directly from the endometrium iv. embryonic tissues begin to mingle with the endometrium to form the placenta v. the fetus develops around itself an amniotic sac containing amniotic fluid - the fetus floats in this fluid and is supported by it * Placenta- grows into the endometrium (inner lining of uterus vs. muscular layer used during childbirth) A. Functions 1. respiratory gas exchange 2. nutrient transfer a) receives from the maternal circulation: i. oxygen ii. glucose iii. lipids iv. water v. minerals vi. vitamins vii. antibodies viii. hormones b) sends into the maternal circulation i. carbon dioxide ii. urea iii. hormones iv. water 3. waste removal for the embryo B. Structure 1. Disc-shaped organ 2. Contains embryonic and maternal blood vessels 3. Grows to about the size of a dinner plate (185 mm in diameter and 20 mm thick) and weighs < 1 kg 4. Placental villi: numerous small projections i. large surface area for gas exchange and exchange of other materials i. within are fetal capillaries, which fetal blood flows through 5. inter-villous spaces i. where maternal blood brought by the uterine arteries flows ii. maternal blood carried away by uterine veins 6. Umbilical arteries, vein i. deoxygenated fetal blood flows from the fetus to the placenta along two umbilical arteries ii. oxygenated fetal blood flows back to the fetus from the placenta along the umbilical vein 7. chorion: fetal portion of the placenta i. forms the placental barrier, controlling what passes in each direction ii. has villi, which have microvilli (surface area for exchange of materials) - connective tissue inside the villus - capillaries with very thin walls of single cells that carry fetal blood *close to the villus surface so there is only a small distance separating maternal and fetal blood iii. mitochondria close to the villus surface - provide ATP for active transport iv. cytoplasm produces estrogen and progesterone; secretes them into maternal blood - maintains corpus luteum, prevents menstrual flow, maintains endometrium of the uterus v. freely permeable basement membrane C. Blood Flow i. maternal blood enters the placenta in arteries ii. flows through blood pools in the endometrium iii. blood leaves via veins. iv. embryonic (fetal) blood remains in vessels and enters the placenta through arteries and passes through capillaries in finger-like chorionic villi - oxygen and nutrients aquired v. fetal blood leaves the placenta through veins leading back to the fetus vi. materials are exchanged by diffusion, active transport, and selective absorption between the fetal capillary bed and the maternal blood pools viii. NOTE: maternal blood does NOT flow along the umbilical cord or through the fetus; maternal and fetal blood never mix. * Hormones 1. Human chorionic gonaditropin (HCG): embryonic hormone that maintains progesterone and estrogen secretion by the corpus luteum to prevent menstruation (which would end the pregnancy)

-acts like pituitary LH in doing so - continues through the first trimester of pregnancy - levels in maternal blood are so high that some is exreted in the urine, where it can be detected in pregnancy tests, the basis of which are monoclonal antibodies (if HCG binds, strip will turn color) 2. Progesterone: stimulates the development of the uterine lining 3. Estrogen: stimulates the development of the uterine lining b. Later development - corpus luteum degenerates in the middle of pregancy but by then the placenta has tken over the role of secreting estrogen and progesterone 3. Childbirth and Hormones i. Induced and regulated by interplay among: a. estrogen - high estrogen levels during the last weeks of pregnancy trigger formation of oxytocin receptors on the uterus b. progesterone - levels were high in the mother during pregnancy - abruptly fall, signaling an end in pregnancy, allowing for oxytocin to be secreted from the pituitary gland c. oxytocin (from the fetus and maternal pituitary) - stimulates the smooth muscles of the uterus to contract - also stimulates prostaglandin secretion by the placenta d. prostaglandins - enhances muscle contraction ii. Positive feedback a. physical and emotional stresses caused by the uterine muscle contractions stimulate secretion of additional oxytocin and prostaglandins iii. End of childbirth a. cervix relaxes and dilates b. amniotic sac ruptures and amniotic fluid is released c. baby pushed out through cervix and vagina d. umbilical cord cut, placenta delivered. VII. Menstrual Cycle A. Hormone control * General i. ovulation occurs after the endometrium thickens and vascularizes ii. if pregnancy does not occur, the endometrium is shed from the uterus through the cervix and vagina during menstruation iii. in humans, cycle varies from woman to woman iv. usually ranges from 20-40 days with an average of 28 days B. Phases 1. Menstrual Flow Phase (menstruation) - time during which most of the endometrium is lost from uterus - only lasts a few days - 1st day of this phase is usually designated as day 1 of the cycle 2. Proliferative Phase - lasts 1-2 weeks and involves the regeneration and thickening of the endometrium - endometrium is thin at the beginning since most of its structure was lost during menstruation 3. Secretory Phase - lasts about 2 weeks and is a time when the endometrium continues to develop (becomes more vascularized and develops glands which secrete a glycogen-rich fluid) - if an embryo does not implant in uterine lining by the end of this phase, a new menstrual flow phase begins C. Hormones and their roles a. coordination of menstrual cycle and ovarian cycle depends primarily on levels of estrogen and progesterone b. increasing estrogen secreted by growing follicles stimulates the endometrium living the uterus to thicken in preparation for an embryo c. after ovulation, the estrogen and progesterone secreted by the corpus luteum stimulate continued development and maintenance of the endometrium d. decreasing concentrations of estrogen and progesterone due to the disintegration of the corpus luteum reduce blood flow to the endometrium e. the result= endometrium breaks down and passes out of the uterus as the menstrual flow f. a new menstrual cycle begins with a new ovarian cycle g. estrogens are also responsible for development of the female secondary sex characteristics VIII. Ovarian Cycle- parallels the menstrual cycle A. Phases 1. Follicular Phase - time during which several follicles in the ovaries begin to grow - only one of the growing follicles will continue to mature while the others degenerate 2. Ovulatory Phase - time when ovulation occurs - follicle ruptures releasing the egg cell 3. Luteal Phase - begins after ovulation - follicular tissue remaining in the ovary after ovulation becomes a corpus luteum * corpus luteum: endocrine tissue that secretes female hormones B. Hormones and their roles a. during follicular phase, pituitary is stimulated to secrete small quantities of FSH and LH b. FSH stimulates immature follicles in the ovary - these cells secrete small amounds of estrogen, increasing as the follicle grows c. High amounds of estrogen result in a sudden increase in FSH and LH secretion - LH increases more than FSH

d. sudden surge in LH concentration stimulates final maturation of the follicle and ovulation -high concentrations of LH stimulates ruptured follicular tissue to transform into the corpus luteum e. presence of LH during luteal phase stimulates the corpus luteum to continue secreting estrogen as well as increasing amounts of progesterone f. increasing concentrations of estrogen and progesterone inhibit the release of LH and FSH g. As LH levels decline, corpus luteum begins to atrophy, resulting in a sudden drop in estrogen and progesterone concentrations h. decreasing levels of progesterone and estrogen remove inhibition, and pituitary secretes low levels of FSH and LH i. A new follicular phase begins at this point IX. In Vitro Fertilization (IVF): may be used to circumvent blocked oviducts A. Technique 1. A drug is injected once a day for 3 weeks to stop the womans normal menstrual cycle 2. Large doses of FSH are injected once a day for 10-12 days to stimulate the ovaries to develop many follicles 3. HCG is injected 36 hours before egg collection to loosen the eggs in the follicles and make them mature 4. Semen is collected 5. Eggs are extracted from the follicles using a device inserted through the wall of the vagina 6. each egg is mixed with sperm in a shallow dish and kept overnight in an incubator 7. the dishes are checked to see if fertilization has occurred 8. Two or three embryos are selected and placed via a long plastic tube into the uterus 9. A pregnancy test is done to confirm implantation 10. Scans are done to see if the pregnancy is continuing B. Ethical Arguments 1. For i. some childless couples are able to have children 2. Against i. inherited forms of infertility might be passed on to the children, repeating the suffering ii. more embryos are produced than are needed and the spare embryos are sometimes killed although they represent new human life iii. multiple births carry the risk of various health problems for the children and IVF children are more at risk

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