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IB BIOLOGY SL

Shelley Lima

1. Working With Data


1.1.1 State that error bars are graphical representations of the variability of data Error bars are graphical representations of the variability of data. 1.1.2 Calculate the mean and standard deviation of a set of values. See video (coming soon) 1.1.3 State that the term standard deviation is used to summarize the spread of values around the mean, and that 68% of the values fall within one standard deviation of the mean. The term standard deviation is used to summarize the spread of values around the mean, and that 68% of the values fall within one standard deviation of the mean. This rises to about 95% for +/- 2 standard deviations. 1.1.4 Explain how the standard deviation is useful for comparing the means and spread of data between two or more samples. The standard deviation is used to show how the values are spread above and below the mean. A low standard deviation means that the values are closely grouped around the mean whereas a high standard deviation means that the values are widely spread. About 68% of the values fall within one standard deviation of the mean. This rises to about 95% for +/- 2 standard deviations. We can use the standard deviation to decide weather the differences between two means is significant. If the difference between the two means is larger than that of the standard deviations then the difference between the two means is significant. If the difference between the two means is smaller than that of the standard deviation then the differences between the two means are insignificant. 1.1.6 Explain that the existence of a correlation does not establish that there is a casual relationship between two variables. Correlation often shows a casual relationship between two variables such as height and weight. Taller people tend to be heavier and so we can see a correlation in these two sets of data. However, some variables may show correlation when in fact there is no casual relationship between them. The results may be correlated by chance. This means that even the correlation is a useful tool for studying data, it is not always reliable.

2.1 Cell Theory


2.1.1 Outline the cell theory. The cell theory states that:

All living organisms are composed of cells. Multicellular organisms (example: humans) are composed of many cells while unicellular organisms (example: bacteria) are composed of only one cell. Cells are the basic unit of structure in all organisms. Cells are the smallest unit of life. They are the smallest structures capable of surviving on their own. Cells come from pre-exsisting cells and cannot be created from non-living material. For example, new cells arise from cell division and a zygote (the very first cell formed when an organism is produced) arises from the fusion of an egg cell and a sperm cell. 2.1.2 Discuss the evidence for the cell theory. When scientists started to look at the structures of organisms under the microscope they discovered that all living organisms where made up of these small units which they proceeded to call cells. When these cells were taken from tissues they were able to survive for some period of time. Nothing smaller than the cell was able to live independently and so it was concluded that the cell was the smallest unit of life. For some time, scientists thought that cells must arise from non-living material but it was eventually proven that this was not the case, instead they had to arise from pre-exsisting cells. An experiment to prove this can be done as follows: Take two containers and put food in both of these Sterilize both of the containers so that all living organisms are killed Leave one of the containers open and seal the other closed What will happen is that in the open container mold will start to grow but in the container that was sealed no mold will be present. The reason for this is because in the open container, cells are able to enter the container from the external environment and start to divide and grow. However, due to the seal on the other container no cells will be able to enter and so no mold will develop, proving that cells cannot arise from non-living material. 2.1.3 State that unicellular organisms carry out all the functions of life. Unicellular organisms carry out all the functions of life including metabolism, response, homeostasis, growth, reproduction and nutrition. 2.1.4 Compare the relative sizes of molecules, cell membrane thickness, viruses, bacteria, organelles and cells, using the appropriate SI unit. Remember: 1 millimeter (mm) = 10-3 meters 1 micrometer (m) = 10-3 millimeters 1 nanometer (nm) = 10-3 micrometers
A molecule = 1 nm

Thickness of cell membrane = 10 nm Viruses = 100 nm Bacteria = 1m Organelles = up to 10 m Eukaryotic cells = up to 100 m 2.1.5 Calculate the linear magnification of drawings and the actual size of specimens in images of known magnification.

Take a measurement of the drawing (width or length) Take this same measurement of the specimen Remember to convert units if needed to Place your values into the equation Magnification = length of drawing / length of actual specimen You can also calculate the length of the specimen if this is unknown: length of the drawing / magnification. Conversion of units: 1 centimeter = 10-2 meters 1 millimeter = 10-3 meters 1 micrometer = 10-6 meters 1 nanometer = 10-9 meters 2.1.6 Explain the importance of the surface area to volume ratio as a factor limiting cell size. Many reactions occur within the cell. Substances need to be taken into the cell to fuel these reactions and the wast products of the reactions need to be removed. When the cell increases in size so does its chemical activity. This means that more substances need to be taken in and more need to be removed. The surface area of the cell is vital for this. Surface area affects the rate at which particles can enter and exit the cell (The amount of substances that it takes up from the environment and excretes into the environment), whereas the volume affects the rate at which material are made or used within the cell, hence the chemical activity per unit of time. As the volume of the cell increases so does the surface area however not to the same extent. When the cell gets bigger its surface area to volume ratio gets smaller. To illustrate this we can use three different cubes. The first cube has a side of 1 cm, the second 3 cm and the third 4 cm. If we calculate the surface area to volume ratio we get: Cube 1 Surface area: 6 sides x 12 = 6 cm2 Volume: 13 = 1 cm3 Ratio = 6:1
Cube 2 Surface area: 6 sides x 32 = 54 cm2 Volume: 33 = 27 cm3 Ratio = 2:1

Cube 3 Surface area: 6 sides x 42 = 96 cm2 Volume : 43 = 64 cm3 Ratio = 1.5:1 As we can see the cube with the largest surface area and volume has the smallest surface area to volume ratio. If the surface area to volume ratio gets too small then substances wont be able to enter the cell fast enough to fuel the reactions and wast products will start to accumulate within the cell as they will be produced faster than they can be excreted. In addition, cells will not be able to lose heat fast enough and so may overheat. Therefor the surface area to volume ratio is very important for a cell. 2.1.7 State that multicellular organisms show emergent properties. Multicellular organisms show emergent properties. For example: cells form tissues, tissues form organs, organs form organ systems and organ systems form multicellular organisms. The idea is that the whole is greater than the composition of its parts. For example your lungs are made of many cells. However, the cells by themselves arent much use. It is the many cells working as a unit that allow the lungs to perform their function. 2.1.8 Explain that cells in multicellular organisms differentiate to carry out specialized functions by expressing some of their genes but not others. Every cell in a multicellular organisms contains all the genes of that organism. However, the genes that are activated vary from cell to cell. The reason we have different types of cells in our body (the cells in your eyes are not the same as the ones that make up your hair) is because different genes are activated in different cells. For example, the gene that produces keratin will be active in hair and nail cells. Keratin is the protein which makes up hair and nails. Genes encode for proteins and the proteins affect the cells structure and function so that the cell can specialize. This means cells develop in different ways. This is called differentiation. Differentiation depends on gene expression which is regulated mostly during transcription. It is an advantage for multicellular organisms as cells can differentiate to be more efficient unlike unicellular organisms who have to carry out all of the functions within that one cell. 2.1.9 State that stem cells retain the capacity to divide and have the ability to differentiate along different pathways. Adults have stems cells in the tissues in their bodies that need to be frequently replaced such as the skin. Stem cells have the ability to produce a wide range of cells which means that they are pluripotent. They retain their ability to divide and produce many different cells by cell division and the process of differentiation. For example, one type of stem cells in the bone marrow produce a variety of red and white blood cells. 2.1.10 Outline one therapeutic use of stem cells. Bone marrow transplants are one of the many therapeutic uses of stem cells. Stem cells found in the bone marrow give rise to the red blood cells, white blood

cells and platelets in the body. These stem cells can be used in bone marrow transplants to treat people who have certain types of cancer. When a patient has cancer and is given high doses of chemotherapy, the chemotherapy kills the cancer cells but also the normal cells in the bone marrow. This means that the patient cannot produce blood cells. So before the patient is treated with chemotherapy, he or she can undergo a bone marrow harvest in which stem cells are removed from the bone marrow by using a needle which is inserted into the pelvis (hip bone). Alternatively, if stem cells cannot be used from the patient then they can be harvested from a matching donor. After the chemotherapy treatment the patient will have a bone marrow transplant in which the stem cells are transplanted back into the patient through a drip, usually via a vein in the chest or the arm. These transplanted stem cells will then find their way back to the bone marrow and start to produce healthy blood cells in the patient. Therefore the therapeutic use of stem cells in bone marrow transplants is very important as it allows some patients with cancer to undergo high chemotherapy treatment. Without this therapeutic use of stem cells, patients would only be able to take low doses of chemotherapy which could lower their chances of curing the disease.

2.2 Prokaryotic Cells


2.2.1 Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of Escherichia coli (E. coli) as an example of a prokaryote.

Figure 2.2.1 - Annotated drawing of Escherichia coli 2.2.2 Annotate the diagram from 2.2.1 with the functions of each named structure. Cell wall: Protects the cell from the outside environment and maintains the shape of the cell. It also prevents the cell from bursting if internal pressure rises. Plasma membrane: Semi-permeable membrane that controls the substances moving into and out of the cell. It contains integral and peripheral proteins.

Substances pass through by either active or passive transport. Cytoplasm: Contains many enzymes used to catalyze chemical reactions of metabolism and it also contains the DNA in a region called the nucleoid. Ribosomes are also found in the cytoplasm. Pili: Help bacteria adhere to each other for the exchange of genetic material. Flagella (singular flagellum): Made of a protein called flagellin. Helps bacteria move around by the use of a motor protein that spins the flagellum like a propeller. Ribosomes: They are the site of protein synthesis. Contributes to protein synthesis by translating messenger RNA. Nucleoid: Region containing naked DNA which stores the hereditary material (genetic information) that controls the cell and will be passed on to daughter cells. 2.2.3 Identify structures from 2.2.1 in electron micrographs of E. coli.

Figure 2.2.2 - Electron micrograph of a prokaryotic cell 2.2.4 State that prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission. Prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission. Binary fission is a method of asexual reproduction involving the splitting of the parent organism into two separate organisms.

Eukaryotic Cells
2.3.1 Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of a liver cell as an example of an animal cell.

Figure 2.3.1 - Annotated drawing of an animal cell 2.3.2 Annotate the diagram from 2.3.1 with the functions of each named structure. Ribosomes: Found either floating free in the cytoplasm or attached to the surface of the rough endoplasmic reticulum and in mitochondria and chloroplast. Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis as they translate messenger RNA to produce proteins. Rough endoplasmic reticulum: Can modify proteins to alter their function and/or destination. Synthesizes proteins to be excreted from the cell. Lysosome: Contains many digestive enzymes to hydrolyze macromolecules such as proteins and lipids into their monomers. 8

Golgi apparatus: Receives proteins from the rough endoplasmic reticulum and may further modify them. It also packages proteins before the protein is sent to its final destination which may be intracellular or extracellular. Mitochondrion: Is responsible for aerobic respiration. Converts chemical energy into ATP using oxygen. Nucleus: Contains the chromosomes and therefore the hereditary material. It is responsible for controlling the cell. 2.3.3 Identify structures from 2.3.1 in electron micrographs of liver cells.

Figure 2.3.2 - Electron micrograph of an animal cell 2.3.4 Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

1. Prokaryotic cells have naked DNA which is found in the cytoplasm in a region named the nucleoid. On the other hand, eukaryotes have chromosomes that are made up of DNA and protein. These chromosomes are found in the nucleus enclosed in a nuclear envelope. 2. Prokaryotes do not have any mitochondria whereas eukaryotes do. 3. Prokaryotes have small ribosomes (70S) compared to eukaryotes which have large ribosomes (80S). 4. In prokaryotes there are either no or very few organelles bounded by a single membrane in comparison to eukaryotes which have many of them including the Golgi apparatus and the endoplasmic reticulum.
2.3.5 State three differences between plant and animal cells.

1. Animal cells only have a plasma membrane and no cell wall. Whereas plant cells have a plasma membrane and a cell wall. 2. Animal cells do not have chloroplasts whereas plant cells do for the process of photosynthesis. 3. Animal cells store glycogen as their carbohydrate resource whereas plants store starch. 4. Animal cells do not usually contain any vacuoles and if present they are small or temporary. On the other hand plants have a large vacuole that is always present. 5. Animal cells can change shape due to the lack of a cell wall and are usually rounded whereas plant cells have a fixed shape kept by the presence of the cell wall.
2.3.6 Outline two roles of extracellular components. The plant cell wall gives the cell a lot of strength and prevents it from bursting under high pressure as it is made up of cellulose arranged in groups called microfibrils. It gives the cell its shape, prevents excessive water up take by osmosis and is the reason why the whole plant can hold itself up against gravity. The animal cell contains glycoproteins in their extracellular matrix which are involved in the support, movement and adhesion of the cell.

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Membranes
2.4.1 Draw and label a diagram to show the structure of membranes.

Figure 2.4.1 - Annotated drawing of a cell membrane 2.4.2 Explain how the hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties of phospholipids help to maintain the structure of cell membranes. Phospholipid molecules make up the cell membrane and are hydrophilic (attracted to water) as well as hydrophobic (not attracted to water but are attracted to other hydrophobic tails). They have a hydrophilic phosphate head and two hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails. Cell membranes are made up of a double layer of these phospholipid molecules. This is because in water the hydrophilic heads will face the water while the hydrophobic tails will be in the center because they face away from the water. The phospholipid bilayer makes the membrane very stable but also allows flexibility. The phospholipid in the membrane are in a fluid state which allows the cell to change its shape easily. 2.4.3 List the functions of membrane proteins. Membrane proteins can act as hormone binding sites, electron carriers, pumps for active transport, channels for passive transport and also enzymes. In addition they can be used for cell to cell communication as well as cell adhesion. 2.4.4 Define diffusion and osmosis. Diffusion is the passive movement of particles from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration. Osmosis is the passive movement of water molecules, across a partially permeable membrane, from a region of lower solute concentration to a region of higher solute concentration. 2.4.5 Explain passive transport across membranes by simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion. 11

Membranes are semi-permeable which means that they allow certain molecules through but not others. The molecules can move in and out through passive transport which is a method that does not require any input of outside energy. It can either be done by simple diffusion or facilitated diffusion. Molecules will go from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration as they move randomly and eventually become evenly distributed within the system if they are permeable to the membrane. Simple diffusion involves the diffusion of molecules through the phospholipid bilayer while facilitated diffusion involves the use of channel proteins embedded in the membrane. The cell membrane is hydrophobic inside so hydrophobic (lipid soluble) molecules will pass through by simple diffusion whereas hydrophilic molecules and charged particles will use facilitated diffusion. Water moves through by osmosis which is also by passive transport. Osmosis involves the movement of water molecules from a region of low solute concentration, to a region of high solute concentration. So if the solute concentration is higher inside the cell than outside the cell, water will move in and vice versa. 2.4.6 Explain the role of protein pumps and ATP in active transport across membranes. Active transport involves the movement of substances through the membrane using energy from ATP. The advantage of active transport is that substances can be moved against the concentration gradient, meaning from a region of low concentration to a region of high concentration. This is possible because the cell membrane has protein pumps embedded it which are used in active transport to move substances across by using ATP. Each protein pump only transports certain substances so the cell can control what comes in and what goes out. 2.4.7 Explain how vesicles are used to transport materials within a cell between the rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and the cell membrane. After proteins have been synthesized by ribosomes they are transported to the rough endoplasmic reticulum where they can be modified. Vesicles carrying the protein then bud off the rough endoplasmic reticulum and are transported to the Golgi apparatus to be further modified. After this the vesicles carrying the protein bud off the Golgi apparatus and carry the protein to the plasma membrane. Here the vesicles fuse with the membrane expelling their content (the modified proteins) outside the cell. The membrane then goes back to its original state. This is a process called exocytosis. Endocytosis is a similar process which involves the pulling of the plasma membrane inwards so that the pinching off of a vesicle from the plasma membrane occurs and then this vesicle can carry its content anywhere in the cell. 2.4.8 Describe how the fluidity of the membrane allows it to change shape, break and re-form during endocytosis and exocytosis. The phospholipids in the cell membrane are not solid but are in a fluid state allowing the membrane to change its shape and also vesicles to fuse with it. This means substances can enter the cell via endocytosis and exit the cell via exocytosis. The membrane then returns to its original state. In exocytosis the vesicles fuse with the membrane expelling their content outside the cell. The

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membrane then goes back to its original state. Endocytosis is a similar process which involves the pulling of the plasma membrane inwards so that a vesicle is pinched off it and then this vesicle can carry its content anywhere in the cell.

Cell Divison
2.5.1 Outline the stages in the cell cycle, including interphase, (G1, S, G2), mitosis and cytokinesis. The first stage of cell division is interphase which is divided into 3 phases; G1, S and G2. The cell cycle starts with G1 (Gap phase 1) during which the cell grows larger. This is followed by phase S (synthesis) during which the genome is replicated. Finally, G2 (gap phase 2) is the second growth phase which separates the newly replicated genome and marks the end of interphase. The fourth stage is mitosis which is divided into prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. During mitosis the spindle fibers attach to the chromosomes and pull sister chromatids apart. This stage separates the two daughter genomes. Finally, cytokinesis is the last stage during which the cytoplasm divides to create two daughter cells. In animal cells the cell is pinched in two while plant cells form a plate between the dividing cells. 2.5.2 State that tumors (cancers) are the result of uncontrolled cell division and that these can occur in any organ or tissue. Tumors are formed when cell division goes wrong and is no longer controlled. This can happen in any organ or tissue. 2.5.3 State that interphase is an active period in the life of a cell when many metabolic reactions occur, including protein synthesis, DNA replication and an increase in the number of mitochondria and/or chloroplast. Interphase is an active period in the life of a cell during which many metabolic reactions occur such as protein synthesis, DNA replication and an increase in the number of mitochondria and/or chloroplast. 2.5.4 Describe the events that occur in the four phases of mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase). During prophase the spindle microtubules grow and extend from each pole to the equator. Also chromosomes super coil and become short and bulky and the nuclear envelope breaks down. During metaphase the chromatids move to the equator and the spindle microtubules from each pole attach to each centromere on opposite sides. During anaphase the spindle microtubules pull the sister chromatids apart splitting the centromeres. This splits the sister chromatids into chromosomes. Each identical chromosome is pulled to opposite poles. During telophase the spindle microtubules break down and the chromosomes uncoil and so are no longer individually visible. Also the nuclear membrane reforms. The cell then divides by cytokinesis to form two daughter cells with identical genetic nuclei. 2.5.5 Explain how mitosis produces two genetically identical nuclei. Mitosis is divided into four stages; prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. During prophase, the chromosomes become visible under a light microscope as they super coil and therefore they get shorter and more bulky. 13

The nuclear envelope disintegrates and the spindle microtubules grow and extend from each pole to the equator. At metaphase the chromatids move to the equator. The sister chromatids are two DNA molecules formed by DNA replication and are therefore identical. These sister chromatids are then separated in anaphase as the spindle microtubules attaches to centromere and pulls the sister chromatids to opposite poles. As the sister chromatids separate they are called chromosomes. This means that each pole has the same chromosomes (same genetic material). Finally the microtubules break down, the chromosomes uncoil and the nuclear membrane reforms. The cell then divides into two daughter cells with genetically identical nuclei. 2.5.6 State that growth, embryonic development, tissue repair and asexual reproduction involve mitosis. Growth, embryonic development, tissue repair and asexual reproduction involve mitosis.

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3.1 Chemical Elements and Water


3.1.1 State that the most frequently occurring chemical elements in living things are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen are the most frequently occurring chemical elements in living things. 3.1.2 State that a variety of other elements are needed by living organisms, including sulfur, calcium, phosphorus, iron and sodium. A variety of other elements are needed by living organisms, including sulfur, calcium, phosphorus, iron and sodium. 3.1.3 State one role for each of the elements mentioned in 3.1.2. Sulfur: Needed for the synthesis of two amino acids. Calcium: Acts as a messenger by binding to calmodulin and a few other proteins which regulate transcription and other processes in the cell. Phosphorus: Is part of DNA molecules and is also part of the phosphate groups in ATP. Iron: Is needed for the synthesis of cytochromes which are proteins used during electron transport for aerobic cell respiration. Sodium: When it enters the cytoplasm, it raises the solute concentration which causes water to enter by osmosis. 3.1.4 Draw and label a diagram showing the structure of water molecules to show their polarity and hydrogen bond formation. 3.1.5 Outline the thermal, cohesive and solvent properties of water. Thermal properties of water include heat capacity, boiling and freezing points and the cooling effect of evaporation. Water has a large heat capacity which means that a considerable amount of energy is needed to increase its temperature. This is due to the strength of the hydrogen bonds which are not easily broken. This is why the temperature of water tends to remain relatively stable. It is beneficial for aquatic animals as they use water as a habitat. Water has a high boiling and freezing point. It boils at 100 C because the strong hydrogen bonds. All these hydrogen bonds between the water molecules need to break for the liquid to change to gas. Water becomes less dense as it gets closer to the freezing point and so ice always forms on the surface first. The high boiling point of water is vital for life on earth as if water boiled at a lower temperature the water in living organisms would start to boil and therefore these organisms would not survive. The fact that water becomes less dense as it freezes is beneficial to organisms as ice will always form at the surface of lakes or seas and by doing so it insulates the water underneath, maintaining a possible habitat for organisms to live in. Water can evaporate at temperatures below the boiling point. Hydrogen bonds need to break for this to occur. Cohesion is the effect of hydrogen bonds holding the water molecules together. Water moves up plants because of cohesion. Long columns of water can be sucked up from roots to leaves without the columns breaking. The hydrogen bonds keep the water molecules sticking to each other.

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The solvent properties of water mean that many different substances can dissolve in it because of its polarity. 3.1.6 Explain the relationship between the properties of water and its uses in living organisms as a coolant, medium for metabolic reactions and transport medium. Water can evaporate at temperatures below the boiling point. Hydrogen bonds need to break for this to occur. The evaporation of water cools body surfaces (sweat) and plant leaves (transpiration) by using the energy from liquid water to break the hydrogen bonds. The solvent properties of water mean that many different substances can dissolve in it because of its polarity. This allows substances to be carried in the blood and sap of plants as they dissolve in water. It also makes water a good medium for metabolic reactions.

Carbohydrates, Lipids and Proteins


3.2.1 Distinguish between organic and inorganic compounds.
Organic compounds are compounds that are found in living organisms and contain carbon. Inorganic compounds are the ones that dont contain carbon. Although, there are a few compounds found in living organisms which also contain carbon but are considered as inorganic compounds. These include carbon dioxide, carbonates and hydrogen carbonates. 3.2.2 Identify amino acids, glucose, ribose and fatty acids from diagrams showing their structure. 3.2.3 List three examples of each monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides. Glucose, galactose and fructose are all monosaccharides. Maltose, lactose and sucrose are all disaccharides. Starch, glycogen and cellulose are all polysaccharides. 3.2.4 State one function of glucose, lactose and glycogen in animals, and of fructose, sucrose and cellulose in plants. In animals, glucose is used as an energy source for the body and lactose is the sugar found in milk which provides energy to new borns until they are weaned. Finally, glycogen is used as an energy source (short term only) and is stored in muscles and the liver. In plants, fructose is what makes fruits taste sweet which attracts animals and these then eat the fruits and disperse the seeds found in the fruits. Sucrose is used as an energy source for the plant whereas cellulose fibers is what makes the plant cell wall strong. 3.2.5 Outline the role of condensation and hydrolysis in the relationships between monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides; between fatty acids, glycerol and triglycerides; and between amino acids and polypeptides. 3.2.6 State three functions of lipids. Lipids can be used for energy storage in the form of fat in humans and oil in plants. Lipids can be used as heat insulation as fat under the skin reduces heat loss. Lipids allow buoyancy as they are less dense than water and so animals can float in water. 3.2.7 Compare the use of carbohydrates and lipids in energy storage. Carbohydrates and lipids can both be used as energy storage however carbohydrates are usually used for short term storage whereas lipids are used for long term storage. Carbohydrates are soluble in water unlike lipids. This makes carbohydrates easy to transport around the body (from and to the store). Also, carbohydrates are a lot easier and more rapidly digested so their energy is useful if the body requires energy fast. As for lipids, they

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are insoluble which makes them more difficult to transport however because they are insoluble, lipids do not have an effect on osmosis which prevents problems within the cells in the body. They also contain more energy per gram than carbohydrates which makes lipids a lighter store compared to a store of carbohydrates equivalent in energy.

DNA Structure
3.3.1 Outline DNA nucleotide structure in terms of sugar (deoxyribose), base and phosphate. A nucleotide is made of the sugar deoxyribose, a base (which can be either adenine, guanine, cytosine or thymine) and a phosphate group. Below is a representation of a nucleotide. 3.3.2 State the names of the four bases in DNA. Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine and Thymine.
3.3.3 Outline how DNA nucleotides are linked together by covalent bonds into a single strand. Below is a diagram showing how nucleotides are linked to one another to form a strand. A covalent bond forms between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate group of another nucleotide.

3.3.4 Explain how a DNA double helix is formed using complementary base pairing and hydrogen bonds. DNA is made up of two nucleotide strands. The nucleotides are connected together by covalent bonds within each strand. The sugar of one nucleotide forms a covalent bond with the phosphate group of another. The two strands themselves are connected by hydrogen bonds. The hydrogen bonds are found between the bases of the two strands of nucleotides. Adenine forms hydrogen bonds with thymine whereas guanine forms hydrogen bonds with cytosine. This is called complementary base pairing. Below is a digram showing the molecular structure and bonds within DNA. 3.3.5 Draw and label a simple diagram of the molecular structure of DNA.

DNA Replication
3.4.1 Explain DNA replication in terms of unwinding the double helix and separation of the strands by helicase, followed by formation of the new complementary strands by DNA polymerase. DNA replication is semi-conservative as both of the DNA molecules produced are formed from an old strand and a new one. The first stage of DNA replication involves the unwinding of the double strand of DNA (DNA double helix) and separating them by breaking the hydrogen bonds between the bases. This is done by the enzyme helicase. Each separated strand now is a template for the new strands. There are many free nucleotides around the replication fork which then bond to the template strands. The free nucleotides form hydrogen bonds with their complimentary base pairs on the template strand. Adenine will pair up with thymine and guanine will pair up with cytosine. DNA polymerase is the 17

enzyme responsible for this. The new DNA strands then rewind to form a double helix. The replication process has produced a new DNA molecule which is identical to the initial one. 3.4.2 Explain the significance of complementary base pairing in the conservation of the base sequence of DNA. Complementary base pairing is very important in the conservation of the base sequence of DNA. This is because adenine always pairs up with thymine and guanine always pairs up with cytosine. As DNA replication is semi-conservative (one old strand an d one new strand make up the new DNA molecules), this complementary base pairing allows the two DNA molecules to be identical to each other as they have the same base sequence. The new strands formed are complementary to their template strands but also identical to the other template. Therefore, complementary base pairing has a big role in the conservation of the base sequence of DNA. 3.4.3 State that DNA replication is semi-conservative. DNA replication is semi-conservative.

Transcription and Translation


3.5.1 Compare the structure of RNA and DNA. DNA and RNA both consist of nucleotides which contain a sugar, a base and a phosphate group. However there are a few differences. Firstly, DNA is composed of a double strand forming a helix whereas RNA is only composed of one strand. Also the sugar in DNA is deoxyribose whereas in RNA it is ribose. Finally, both DNA and RNA have the bases adenine, guanine and cytosine. However DNA also contains thymine which is replaced by uracil in RNA. 3.5.2 Outline DNA transcription in terms of the formation of an RNA strand complementary to the DNA strand by RNA polymerase. DNA transcription is the formation of an RNA strand which is complementary to the DNA strand. The first stage of transcription is the uncoiling of the DNA double helix. Then, the free RNA nucleotides start to form an RNA strand by using one of the DNA strands as a template. This is done through complementary base pairing, however in the RNA chain, the base thymine is replaced by uracil. RNA polymerase is the enzyme involved in the formation of the RNA strand and the uncoiling of the double helix. The RNA strand then elongates and then separates from the DNA template. The DNA strands then reform a double helix. The strand of RNA formed is called messenger RNA. 3.5.3 Describe the genetic code in terms of codons composed of triplets of bases. A triplet of bases (3 bases) forms a codon. Each codon codes for a particular amino acid. Amino acids in turn link to form proteins. Therefore DNA and RNA regulate protein synthesis. The genetic code is the codons within DNA and RNA, composed of triplets of bases which eventually lead to protein synthesis. 3.5.4 Explain the process of translation, leading to polypeptide formation. Translation is the process through which proteins are synthesized. It uses ribosomes, messenger RNA which is composed of codons and transfer RNA which has a triplet of bases called the anticodon. The first stage of translation is 18

the binding of messenger RNA to the small subunit of the ribosome. The transfer RNAs have a specific amino acid attached to them which corresponds to their anticodons. A transfer RNA molecule will bind to the ribosome however its anticodon must match the codon on the messenger RNA. This is done through complementary base pairing. These two form a hydrogen bond together. Another transfer RNA molecule then bonds. Two transfer RNA molecules can bind at once. Then the two amino acids on the two transfer RNA molecules form a peptide bond. The first transfer RNA then detaches from the ribosome and the second one takes its place.The ribosome moves along the messenger RNA to the next codon so that another transfer RNA can bind. Again, a peptide bond is formed between the amino acids and this process continues. This forms a polypeptide chain and is the basis of protein synthesis. 3.5.5 Discuss the relationship between one gene and one polypeptide. A polypeptide is formed by amino acids liking together through peptide bonds. There are 20 different amino acids so a wide range of polypeptides are possible. Genes store the information required for making polypeptides. The information is stored in a coded form by the use of triplets of bases which form codons. The sequence of bases in a gene codes for the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide. The information in the genes is decoded during transcription and translation leading to protein synthesis.

Enzymes
3.6.1 Define enzyme and active site. Enzymes: Globular proteins which act as catalysts of chemical reactions. Active site: Region on the surface of an enzyme to which substrates bind and which catalyses a chemical reaction involving the substrates. 3.6.2 Explain enzymesubstrate specificity. The active site of an enzyme is very specific to its substrates as it has a very precise shape. This results in enzymes being able to catalyze only certain reactions as only a small number of substrates fit in the active site. This is called enzyme-substrate specificity. For a substrate to bind to the active site of an enzyme it must fit in the active site and be chemically attracted to it. This makes the enzyme very specific to its substrate. The enzyme-substrate complex can be compared to a lock and key, where the enzyme is the lock and the substrate is the key. 3.6.3 Explain the effects of temperature, pH and substrate concentration on enzyme activity. Enzyme activity increases with an increase in temperature and usually doubles with every 10 degrees rise. This is due to the molecules moving faster and colliding more often together. However at a certain point the temperature gets to high and the enzymes denature and stop functioning. This is due to the heat causing vibrations within the enzyme destroying its structure by breaking the bonds in the enzyme. Enzymes usually have an optimum pH at which they work most efficiently. As the pH diverges from the optimum, enzyme activity decreases. Both acid and alkali environments can denature enzymes. 19

Enzyme activity increases with an increase in substrate concentration as there are more random collisions between the substrate and the active site. However, at some point, all the active sites are taken up and so increasing the substrate concentration will have no more effect on enzyme activity. As long as there are active sites available, an increase in substrate concentration will lead to an increase in enzyme activity. 3.6.4 Define denaturation. Denaturation is changing the structure of an enzyme (or other protein) so it can no longer carry out its function. 3.6.5 Explain the use of lactase in the production of lactose-free milk. Lactose is the sugar found in milk. It can be broken down by the enzyme lactase into glucose and galactose. However some people lack this enzyme and so cannot break down lactose leading to lactose intolerance. Lactose intolerant people need to drink milk that has been lactose reduced. Lactose-free milk can be made in two ways. The first involves adding the enzyme lactase to the milk so that the milk contains the enzyme. The second way involves immobilizing the enzyme on a surface or in beads of a porous material. The milk is then allowed to flow past the beads or surface with the immobilized lactase. This method avoids having lactase in the milk.

Cell Respiration
3.7 Cell Respiration

3.7.1 Define cell respiration Cell respiration is the controlled release of energy from organic compounds in cells to form ATP. 3.7.2 State that, in cell respiration, glucose in the cytoplasm is broken down by glycolysis into pyruvate, with a small yield of ATP. In cell respiration, glucose in the cytoplasm is broken down by glycolysis into pyruvate with a small yield of ATP. 3.7.3 Explain that, during anaerobic cell respiration, pyruvate can be converted in the cytoplasm into lactate, or ethanol and carbon dioxide, with no further yield of ATP. In anaerobic cell respiration the pyruvate stays in the cytoplasm and in humans is converted into lactate which is the removed from the cell. In yeast the pyruvate is converted into carbon dioxide and ethanol. In either case, no ATP is produced. 3.7.4 Explain that, during aerobic cell respiration, pyruvate can be broken down in the mitochondrion into carbon dioxide and water with a large yield of ATP. If oxygen is available, the pyruvate is taken up into the mitochondria and is broken down into carbon dioxide and water. A large amount of ATP is released during this process.

Photosynthesis

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3.8.1 State that photosynthesis involves the conversion of light energy into chemical energy. Photosynthesis involves the conversion of light energy into chemical energy. 3.8.2 State that light from the Sun is composed of a range of wavelengths (colours). The light from the sun is composed of a range of wavelengths (colours). 3.8.3 State that chlorophyll is the main photosynthetic pigment. Chlorophyll is the main photosynthetic pigment. 3.8.4 Outline the differences in absorption of red, blue and green light by chlorophyll. Chlorophyll can absorb red and blue light more than green. Chlorophyll cannot absorb green light and so instead reflects it making leaves look green. 3.8.5 State that light energy is used to produce ATP, and to split water molecules (photolysis) to form oxygen and hydrogen. Light energy is used to produced ATP and to split water molecules (photolysis) to form oxygen and hydrogen. 3.8.6 State that ATP and hydrogen (derived from the photolysis of water) are used to fix carbon dioxide to make organic molecules. ATP and hydrogen derived from photolysis of water are used to fix carbon dioxide to make organic molecules. 3.8.7 Explain that the rate of photosynthesis can be measured directly by the production of oxygen or the uptake of carbon dioxide, or indirectly by an increase in biomass. Photosynthesis can be measured in many ways as it involves the production of oxygen, the uptake of carbon dioxide and an increase in biomass. For example, aquatic plants release oxygen bubbles during photosynthesis and so these can be collected and measured. The uptake of carbon dioxide is more difficult to measure so it is usually done indirectly. When carbon dioxide is absorbed from water the pH of the water rises and so this can be measured with pH indicators or pH meters. Finally, photosynthesis can be measured through an increase in biomass. If batches of plants are harvested at a series of times and the biomass of these batches is calculated, the rate increase in biomass gives an indirect measure of the rate of photosynthesis in the plants. 3.8.8 Outline the effects of temperature, light intensity and carbon dioxide concentration on the rate of photosynthesis. As temperature increases, the rate of photosynthesis increases more and more steeply until the optimum temperature is reached. If temperature keeps increasing above the optimum temperature then photosynthesis starts to decrease very rapidly. As light intensity increases so does photosynthesis until a certain point. At a high light intensities photosynthesis reaches a plateau and so does not increase any more. At low and medium light intensity the rate of photosynthesis is directly proportional to the light intensity. As the carbon dioxide concentration increases so does the rate of photosynthesis. There is no photosynthesis at very low levels of carbon dioxide and at high levels the rate reaches a plateau.

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4.1 Genetics

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Chromosomes, genes, alleles and mutations


4.1.1 State that eukaryote chromosomes are made of DNA and proteins.
Eukaryote chromosomes are made of DNA and proteins. 4.1.2 Define gene, allele and genome. Gene: a heritable factor that controls a specific characteristic. Allele: one specific form of a gene, differing from other alleles by one or a few bases only and occupying the same gene locus as other alleles of the gene. Genome: the whole of the genetic information of an organism. 4.1.3 Define gene mutation. Gene mutation: a change to the base sequence of a gene. 4.1.4 Explain the consequence of a base substitution mutation in relation to the processes of transcription and translation, using the example of sickle-cell anemia.

Sickle cell anaemia is a genetic disease that affects red blood cells in the body. It is due to a mutation on the Hb gene which codes for a polypeptide of 146 amino acids which is part of haemoglobin (haemoglobin is an important protein component in red blood cells). In sickle cell anaemia the codon GAG found in the normal Hb gene is mutated to GTG. This is called a base substitution mutation as adenine (A) is replaced by thymine (T). This means that when the mutated gene is transcribed, a codon in the messenger RNA will be different. Instead of the normal codon GAG, the messenger RNA will contain the codon GUG. This in turn will result in a mistake during translation. In a healthy individual the codon GAG on the messenger RNA matches with the anticodon CUC on the transfer RNA carrying the amino acid glutamic acid. However, if the mutated gene is present then GUG on the messenger RNA matches with the anticodon CAC on the transfer RNA which carries the amino acid valine. So the base substitution mutation has caused glutamic acid to be replaced by valine on the sixth position on the polypeptide. This results in haemoglobin S being present in red blood cells instead of the normal haemoglobin A. This has an effect on the phenotype as instead of normal donut shaped red blood cells being produced some of the red blood cells will be sickle shaped. As a result these sickle shaped red blood cells cannot carry oxygen as efficiently as normal red blood cells would. However, there is an advantage to sickle cell anemia. The sickle cell red blood cells give resistance to malaria and so the allele Hb on the Hb gene which causes sickle cell anemia is quite common in parts of the world where malaria is found as it provides an advantage over the disease. Summary of important steps:
s

Normal Gene Codon Transcription Translation GAG GAG on mRNA Anticodon CUC and amino acid glutamic acid on tRNA.

Mutated gene GTG GUG on mRNA Anticodon CAC and amino acid valine on tRNA.

Haemoglobin

HbA

HbS

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Phenotype

Normal donut shaped red blood cells. Carry oxygen efficiently but are affected by malaria.

Sickle cell shaped red blood cells. Do not carry oxygen efficiently but give resistance to malaria.

Effects

Meiosis
4.2.1 State that meiosis is a reduction division of a diploid nucleus to form haploid nuclei. Meiosis is a reduction division of a diploid nucleus to form haploid nuclei. 4.2.2 Define homologous chromosomes. Homologous chromosomes: chromosomes with the same genes as each other, in the same sequence but do not necessarily have the same allele of those genes. 4.2.3 Outline the process of meiosis, including pairing of homologous chromosomes and crossing over, followed by two divisions, which results in four haploid cells. Meiosis involves two divisions. Meiotic cells have an interphase stage before the start of meiosis I which is similar to mitosis. It includes G1, S and G2 phases. (See notes on mitosis) After meiosis I there is another brief interphase stage which is followed by meiosis II. Meiosis I The first stage of meiosis I is prophase I. In prophase I the chromosomes pair up so that the chromosomes in each pair are homologous. Once the homologous chromosomes are paired up, crossing over occurs. Crossing over is the exchange of genetic material between non-sister chromatids. The nuclear membrane also starts to break down and the spindle microtubules stretch out from each pole to the equator. The second stage is metaphase I. Here the paired up homologous chromosomes line up at the equator and the spindle fibbers attach to the chromosomes in a way that ensures that for each homologous pair, one chromosome moved to one pole and the other moves to the opposite pole. The third stage is anaphase I. This is the stage where the homologous chromosomes are separated and pulled to opposite poles. This halves the chromosome number however each chromosome is still composed of two sister chromatids. The cell membrane starts to prepare for its separation at the equator to form two cells. The fourth stage is telophase I. Here each chromosome from the homologous pair are found at opposite poles and the nuclear membrane reforms around each daughter nucleus. The membrane then divides through citokinesis. There is a brief interphase stage before the start of meiosis II. This stage does not include the S phase. Meiosis II The first stage of meiosis II is prophase II. Here the cell has divided into two 24

daughter haploid cells however the process does not end here as these two cells immediately start to divide again. The spindle microtubules stretch out from each pole again and the nuclear membrane breaks down as in prophase I. The second stage is metaphase II. Here the chromosomes in each cell line up at the equator and the spindle microtubules attach to the centromere of each chromosome. The third stage is anaphase II. Here the centromere devised as a result of the spindle microtubules pulling each sister chromatid to opposite poles in both cells. Each sister chromatid then becomes a chromosome. The fourth stage is telophase II. Here the nuclear membrane reforms around the four sets of daughter chromosomes. Cytokinesis then follows to divide the cytoplasm of the two cells and so the result is four daughter cells each with a haploid set of chromosomes. Below is a summary of meiosis:

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4.2.4 Explain that non-disjunction can lead to changes in chromosome number, illustrated by reference to Down syndrome (trisomy 21). A number of problems can arise during meiosis. A common problem is nondisjunction. This is when the chromosomes do not separate properly during meiosis, either in meiosis I (in anaphase I) or meiosis II (in anaphase II). This leads the production of gametes that either have a chromosome too many or too few. Gametes with a missing chromosome usually die quite fast however gametes with an extra chromosome can survive. When a zygote is formed from the fertilization of these gametes with an extra chromosome, three chromosomes of one type are present instead of two. An example of this is Down syndrome. Down syndrome is a disease in which the chromosomes failed to separate properly during meiosis leading to three chromosomes of type 21 instead of two. A person with the condition therefore has a total of 47 chromosomes instead of 46. The non-disjunction can take place either in the formation of the egg or the sperm. Down syndrome leads to many complications and also the risk of having a child with the condition increases with age. Below is a diagram illustrating a non-disjunction:

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4.2.5 State that, in karyotyping, chromosomes are arranged in pairs according to their size and structure. In karyotyping, chromosomes are arranged in pairs according to their size and structure. 4.2.6 State that karyotyping is performed using cells collected by chorionic villus sampling or amniocentesis, for pre-natal diagnosis of chromosome abnormalities. Karyotyping is performed using cells collected by chorionic villus sampling or amniocentesis, for pre-natal diagnosis of chromosome abnormalities. 4.2.7 Analyse a human karyotype to determine gender and whether nondisjunction has occurred. Karyotyping can be used to determine gender of a fetus and look for chromosome abnormalities such as non-disjunction. The gender can be deduced by looking at the sex chromosomes. Females will have two X chromosomes while males have one X and one Y. We can distinguish this on with karyotyping as the Y chromosome is smaller than the X. As for non-disjunctions we can see if a chromosome is missing or if their is an extra one by looking at the number of chromosomes. If There should only be two of each chromosome. Each 23 chromosomes should have a pair resulting in 46 chromosomes in total. For example, if we notice that there are three chromosomes 21 then we can conclude that a non-disjunction occurred. In this case, the non-disjunction results in Downs syndrome. (trisomy 21) Below are two images of a karyotype. The first one is of a normal healthy male patient as on the karyotype there are two chromosomes for each chromosome number and a Y chromosome is present. The second image shows the karyotype a person with Downs syndrome would get. Karyotype 1:

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Karyotype 2:

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Theoretical genetics
4.3.1 Define genotype, phenotype, dominant allele, recessive allele, codominant alleles, locus, homozygous, heterozygous, carrier and test cross.
Genotype: the alleles of an organism. Phenotype: the characteristics of an organism. Dominant allele: an allele that has the same effect on the phenotype whether it is present in the homozygous or heterozygous state. Recessive allele: an allele that only has an effect on the phenotype when present in the homozygous state. Codominant alleles: pairs of alleles that both affect the phenotype when present in a heterozygote. Locus: the particular position on homologous chromosomes of a gene. Homozygous: having two identical alleles of a gene. Heterozygous: having two different alleles of a gene. Carrier: an individual that has one copy of a recessive allele that causes a genetic disease in individuals that are homozygous for this allele. Test cross: testing a suspected heterozygote by crossing it with a known homozygous recessive.

4.3.2 Determine the genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring of a monohybrid cross using a Punnett grid.

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4.3.3 State that some genes have more than two alleles (multiple alleles).
Some genes have more than two alleles (multiple alleles).

4.3.4 Describe ABO blood groups as an example of codominance and multiple alleles.
The ABO blood group is a good example of codominance and multiple alleles. There are three allele that control the ABO blood groups. If there are more than two allele of a gene then they are called multiple allele. The allele I corresponds to blood group A (genotype I I ) and the allele I corresponds to blood group B (genotype I I ). Both of these are dominant and so if I and I are present together they form blood group AB (genotype I I ). Both allele affect the phenotype since they are both codominant. Codominant allele are pairs of allele that both affect the phenotype when present together in a heterozygote. The allele i is recessive to both I and I so if you have the genotype I i you will have blood group A and if you have the genotype I i you will have blood group B. However if you have the genotype ii then you are homozygous for i and will be of blood group O. Below is a table to summaries which genotypes give which phenotypes.
A A A B B B A B A B A B A B

Phenotype Genotype A I I or I i B I I or I i AB II O ii
A A B B A B A B

Below are diagrams illustrating the inheritance of the ABO blood groups.

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4.3.5 Explain how the sex chromosomes control gender by referring to the inheritance of X and Y chromosomes in humans.
There are two chromosomes which determine gender. These are called the sex chromosomes and there are two types, the X and the Y chromosome. Females have two X chromosomes whereas males have one X and one Y chromosome. The X chromosome is relatively large compared to the Y (which is much smaller) and contains many genes. The Y chromosome on the other hand only contains a few genes. The female always passes on to her offspring the X chromosome from the egg (female gamete). The male can pass on either the Y or the X chromosome from the sperm (male gamete). If the male passes on the X chromosome then the growing embryo will develop into a girls. If the male passes on the Y chromosome then the growing embryo will develop into a boy. Therefore gender depends on whether the sperm which fertilizes the egg is carrying an X or a Y chromosome. 4.3.6 State that some genes are present on the X chromosome and absent from the shorter Y chromosome in humans. Some genes are present on the X chromosome and absent from the shorter Y chromosome in humans.

4.3.7 Define sex linkage.


Sex linkage: when the gene controlling the characteristic is located on the sex chromosome and so we associate the characteristic with gender. 4.3.8 Describe the inheritance of colour blindness and hemophilia as examples of sex linkage. Most of the time sex-linked genes are carried on the X chromosome. Since females have two X chromosomes they have two copies of the sex-linked gene whereas males only have one since they only have one X chromosome. Hemophilia and colour blindness are both examples of sex linkage. Hemophilia X is the allele for normal blood clotting and is dominate over X which is recessive and causes hemophilia. If a mother is heterozygous she is a carrier of the disease but does not have hemophilia as the dominate allele is present. She can however pass the disease on to her offspring. Below is a punnett showing how a carrier mother and an unaffected father can pass the disease on to their offspring.
H h

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From our four possible outcomes we can see that a female child cannot get hemophilia but can be a carrier. This is because the father will always pass on the dominate allele (X ) on the X chromosome in females. Depending on whether the mother passes on the dominant or recessive allele will determine if the female child is a carrier or is unaffected by the hemophilia. If the child is a boy then the father has passed on the Y chromosome which does not contain the allele of the gene. So whether the child has the disease or is unaffected depends on which allele the mother had passed on. If she has passed on the recessive allele (X ) then the male child will have hemophilia, however if she has passed on the dominate allele (X ) then the child will be unaffected. So there is a 50% chance of the child having hemophilia if it is male as half of the eggs produced by the mother will carry the recessive allele. The chance of a female offspring having hemophilia is 0% since the father always passes on the dominant allele on the X chromosome. Finally there is a 25% chance overall that the offspring will be affected.
H h H

4.3.9 State that a human female can be homozygous or heterozygous with respect to sex-linked genes.
A human female can be homozygous or heterozygous with respect to sex-linked genes.

4.3.10 Explain that female carriers are heterozygous for X-linked recessive alleles.
Female carriers for X-linked recessive alleles are always heterozygous since they require a dominant allele and a recessive allele to be carriers. They inherit the recessive allele from one parent and the dominate allele from the other. For example hemophilia is a sex-linked disease. If a carrier mother and an unaffected father have offspring then the unaffected father will always pass on his dominate allele to his female offspring. The carrier mother can either pass on the dominate or recessive allele. If she passes on the recessive allele to her female offspring than the female offspring will be a carrier as well.

4.3.11Predict the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of offspring of monohybrid crosses involving any of the above patterns of inheritance.

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Crossing between two heterozygous individuals gives a 3:1 ratio if one of the alleles is dominate and the other is recessive.

4.3.12 Deduce the genotypes and phenotypes of individuals in pedigree charts.


Squares represent males Circles represent females Shaded symbols represent affected individuals Unshaded symbols represent unaffected individuals.

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If most of the males in the pedigree are affected the disorder is X-linked. If it is a 50/50 ratio between men and women the disorder is autosomal. If the disorder is dominant, one of the parents must have the disorder. If the disorder is recessive than neither of the parents has to have the disorder as they can be heterozygous.

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Genetic engineering and biotechnology


4.4.1 Outline the use of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to copy and amplify minute quantities of DNA. Polymerase chain reaction is used to copy and amplify minute quantities of DNA. It can be useful when only a small amount of DNA is available but a large amount is required to undergo testing. We can use DNA from blood, semen, tissues and so on from crime scenes for example. The PCR requires high temperature and a DNA polymerase enzyme from Thermus aquaticus (a bacterium that lives in hot springs). 4.4.2 State that, in gel electrophoresis, fragments of DNA move in an electric field and are separated according to their size. In gel electrophoresis, fragments of DNA move in an electrical field and are separated according to their size. 4.4.3 State that gel electrophoresis of DNA is used in DNA profiling. Gel electrophoresis of DNA is used in DNA profiling. 4.4.4 Describe the application of DNA profiling to determine paternity and also in forensic investigations. Organisms have short sequences of bases which are repeated many times. These are called satellite DNA. These repeated sequences vary in length from person to person. The DNA is copied using PCRand then cut up into small fragments using restriction enzymes. Gel electrophoresis separates fragmented pieces of DNA according to their size and charge. This gives a pattern of bands on a gel which is unlikely to be the same for two individuals. This is called DNA profiling. DNA profiling can be used to determine paternity and also in forensic investigations to get evidence to be used in a court case for example. 4.4.5 Analyse DNA profiles to draw conclusions about paternity or forensic investigations. For a suspect look for similarities between the DNA found at the crime scene and the suspect. For a paternity test, look for similarities between the child and the possible father. 4.4.6 Outline three outcomes of the sequencing of the complete human genome. It is now easier to study how genes influence human development. It helps identify genetic diseases. It allows the production of new drugs based on DNA base sequences of genes or the structure of proteins coded for by these genes. It will give us more information on the origins, evolution and migration of humans. 4.4.7 State that, when genes are transferred between species, the amino acid sequence of polypeptides translated from them is unchanged because the genetic code is universal. When genes are transferred between species, the amino acid sequence of polypeptides translated from them is unchanged because the genetic code is universal. 4.4.8 Outline a basic technique used for gene transfer involving plasmids, a host cell (bacterium, yeast or other cell), restriction enzymes (endonucleases) and DNA ligase. The human gene that codes for insulin can be inserted into a plasmid and then this plasmid can be inserted into a host cell such as a bacterium. The bacterium can then synthesis insulin which can be collected and used by diabetics. This is done as follows. The messenger RNA which codes for insulin is extracted from a human pancreatic cell which produces insulin. DNA copies are then made from this messenger RNA by using the enzyme reverse transcriptase and these DNA copies are then given extra guanine nucleotides to the end of the gene to create sticky ends. At the same time, a selected plasmid is cut using restriction enzymes which cut the DNA at specific base sequences. Then extra cytosine nucleotides are added to create sticky ends. Once we have both the plasmid and the gene ready, these are mixed together. The two will link by complementary base pairing (between cytosine and guanine) and then DNA ligase is used to make the sugar phosphate bonds. The plasmids with the human insulin gene (called recombinant plasmids) can then be mixed

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with host cells such as bacterium. The bacterium will take in the plasmid and start producing insulin which can then be collected and purified. 4.4.9 State two examples of the current uses of genetically modified crops or animals. The transfer of a gene for factor IX which is a blood clotting factor, from humans to sheep so that this factor is produced in the sheeps milk. The transfer of a gene that gives resistance to the herbicide glyphosate from bacterium to crops so that the crop plants can be sprayed with the herbicide and not be affected by it. 4.4.10 Discuss the potential benefits and possible harmful effects of one example of genetic modification. It is quite common to see genetic modifications in crop plants. An example of this is the transfer of a gene that codes for a protein called Bt toxin from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis to maize crops. This is done because maize crops are often destroyed by insects that eat the corn and so by adding the Bt toxin gene this is prevented as the toxin kills the insects. However this is very controversial as even though it has many positive advantages, it can also have some harmful consequences. The table below summarizes the benefits and possible harmful effects of genetically modifying the maize crops.

Benefits Since there is less damage to the maize crops, there is a higher crop yield which can lessen food shortages.

Harmful Effects We are not sure of the consequences of humans and animals eating the modified crops. The bacterial DNA or the Bt toxin itself could be harmful to human as well as animal health. Other insects which are not harmful to the crops could be killed. The maize pollen will contain the toxin and so if it is blown onto near by plants it can kill the insects feeding on these plants. Cross pollination can occur which results in some wild plants being genetically modified as they will contain the Bt gene. These plants will have an advantage over others as they will be resistant to certain insects and so some plants may become endangered. This will have significant consequences on the population of wild plants.

Since there is a higher crop yield, less land is needed to grow more crops. Instead the land can become an area for wild life conservation.

There is a reduction in the use of pesticides which are expensive and may be harmful to the environment, wild life and farm workers.

4.4.11Define clone. Clone: a group of genetically identical organisms or a group of genetically identical cells derived from a single parent cell. 4.4.12 Outline a technique for cloning using differentiated animal cells. Dolly the sheep was cloned by taking udder cells from a donor sheep. These cells were than cultured in a low nutrient medium to make the genes switch off and become dormant. Then an unfertilized egg was taken from another sheep. The nucleus of this egg cell was removed

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by using a micropipette and then the egg cells were fused with the udder cells using a pulse of electricity. The fused cells developed like normal zygotes and became embryos. These embryos were then implanted into another sheep whos role was to be the surrogate mother. One lamb was born successfully and called Dolly. Dolly was genetically identical to the sheep from which the udder cells were taken. 4.4.13 Discuss the ethical issues of therapeutic cloning in humans. There are many ethical issues involving therapeutic cloning in humans. Below is a table summarizing the arguments for and against therapeutic cloning in humans.

Arguments for Embryonic stem cells can be used for therapies that save lives and reduce pain for patients. Since a stem cell can divide and differentiate into any cell type, they can be used to replace tissues or organs required by patients. Cells can be taken from embryos that have stopped developing and so these cells would have died anyway. Cells are taken at a stage when the embryos have no nerve cells and so they cannot feel pain.

Arguments against Every human embryo is a potential human being and should be given the chance of developing.

More embryos are generally produced than are needed and so many are killed.

There is a risk of embryonic stem cells developing into tumour cells.

5. Ecology and Evolution

Communities and ecosystems


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5.1.1 Define species, habitats, populations, community, ecosystems and ecology.


Species: a group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. Habitat: the environment in which a species normally lives or the location of a living organism. Population: a group of organisms of the same species who live in the same area at the same time. Community: a group of populations living and interacting with each other in an area. Ecosystem: a community and its abiotic environment. Ecology: the study of relationships between living organisms and between organisms and their environment. 5.1.2 Distinguish between autotroph and heterotroph. Autotrophs are organisms that synthesize their organic molecules from simple inorganic substances whereas heterotrophs are organisms that obtain organic molecules from other organisms. 5.1.3 Distinguish between consumers, detritivores and saprotrophs. Consumer: an organism that ingests other organic matter that is living or recently killed. Detritivore: an organism that ingests non-living organic matter. Saprotroph: an organism that lives on or in non-living organic matter, secreting digestive enzymes into it and absorbing the products of digestion. 5.1.4 Describe what is meant by a food chain, giving three examples, each with at least three linkages (four organisms). A food chain shows the direction of energy flow from one species to another. For example, an arrow from A to B means that A is being eaten by B and therefore indicates the direction of the energy flow.

Figure 5.1.1 - Example of a food chain 5.1.5 Describe what is meant by a food web. A food web is a diagram that shows all the feeding relationships in a community with arrows which show the direction of the energy flow. 5.1.6 Define trophic level. Trophic level: the trophic level of an organism is its position in the food chain. Producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers and tertiary consumers are examples of trophic levels. 5.1.7 Deduce the trophic level of organisms in a food chain and a food web. Plants or any other photosynthetic organisms are the producers. Primary consumers are the species that eat the producers. Secondary consumers are the species that eat the primary consumers and tertiary consumers in turn eat the secondary consumers. 5.1.8 Construct a food web containing up to 10 organisms, using appropriate information.

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Figure 5.1.2 - Food web


5.1.9 State that light is the initial energy source for almost all communities. Light is the initial energy source for almost all communities. 5.1.10 Explain the energy flow in a food chain. Producers receive their energy from light energy (the sun) by means of photosynthesis. After this, the energy in organic matter flows from producers to primary consumers to secondary consumers to tertiary consumers. This is because producers will be eaten by primary consumers which in turn will be eaten by secondary consumers and so on. However, between these trophic levels, energy is always lost. All of the trophic levels lose energy as heat through cell respiration. Also, as the organic matter passes from one trophic level to the next, not all of it is digested and so we have loss of energy in organic matter through feces. This energy then passes on to the detritivores and saprotrophs. Another energy loss occurs through tissue loss and death which can happen at any trophic level. Once again, this energy would be passed on to detritivores and saprotrophs as they digest these. Detritivores and saprotrophs in turn lose energy as heat through cell respiration.

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Summary:
1. Energy flows from producers to primary consumers, to secondary consumers, to tertiary consumers... 2. Energy is lost between trophic levels in the form of heat through cell respiration, faeces, tissue loss and death. 3. Some of this lost energy is used by detritivores and saprotrophs. These in turn also lose energy in the form of heat through cell respiration. 5.1.11 State that energy transformations are never 100% efficient. Energy transformations are never 100% efficient. 5.1.12 Explain that energy enters and leaves ecosystems, but nutrients must be recycled. Energy is not recycled. It is constantly being supplied to ecosystems through light energy and then flows through the trophic levels. As it flows through the trophic levels energy is lost in feces, tissue loss and death. This energy from these losses is passed on to detritivores and saprotrophs. However the energy is then lost from the ecosystem as the remaining energy in the trophic levels and the energy in the saprotrophs and detritivores is lost through cell respiration in the form of heat. As a result, energy needs to be constantly supplied to the ecosystems. Nutrients on the other hand are different as they constantly have to be recycled. Carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus are all examples of nutrients. There is only a limited supply of these as they are not resupplied to the ecosystems like energy. Therefor they have to be recycled over and over. They are absorbed from the environment, used by living organisms and then returned to the environment.

Summary:
Energy is not recycled. Constantly being supplied to the ecosystem through light energy. Energy is lost from the ecosystem in the form of heat through cell respiration. Nutrients must be recycled as there is only a limited supply of them. They are absorbed by the environment, used by organisms and then returned to the environment. 5.1.12 State that saprotrophic bacteria and fungi (decomposers) recycle nutrients. Saprotrophic bacteria and fungi (decomposers) recycle nutrients. 1. 2. 3. 4.

The greenhouse effect


5.2.1 Draw and label a diagram of the carbon cycle to show the processes involved.

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5.2.2 Analyse the changes in concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide using historical records. See video (coming soon) 5.2.3 Explain the relationship between rises in concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide, methane and oxides of nitrogen and the enhanced greenhouse effect. The earths mean average temperature is regulated by a steady equilibrium which exists between the energy reaching the earth from the sun and the energy reflected by the earth back into space. The incoming radiation is short wave ultraviolet and visible radiation. Some of the radiation will be absorbed by the atmosphere and some of it will be reflected back from the earths surface into space. The radiation that is reflected back into space is infrared radiation which has a longer wavelength. Green house gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and oxides of nitrogen tend to absorb some of the reflected infrared radiation and re-reflect it back towards the earth. This is what causes the greenhouse effect and it results in an increase in average mean temperature on earth. It is a natural phenomenon. However, since there has been an increase in the green house gases in the past century, this has resulted in an increase of the green house effect leading to higher than normal average temperatures which could lead to disastrous consequences in the future.

Summary:
1. 2. 3. 4. The incoming radiation from the sun is short wave ultraviolet and visible radiation. Some of this radiation is absorbed by the earths atmosphere. Some of the radiation is reflected back into space by the earths surface. The radiation which is reflected back into space is infrared radiation and has a longer wavelength. 5. The greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorbe some of this infrared radiation and rereflect it back towards the earth.

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6. This causes the green house effect and results in an increase in average mean temperatures on earth. 7. A rise in greenhouse gases results in an increase of the green house effect which can be disastrous for the planet. 5.2.4 Outline the precautionary principle. The precautionary principle holds that, if the effects of a human-induced change would be very large, perhaps catastrophic, those responsible for the change must prove that it will not do harm before proceeding. This is the reverse of the normal situation, where those who are concerned about the change would have to prove that it will do harm in order to prevent such changes going ahead. 5.2.5 Evaluate the precautionary principle as a justification for strong action in response to the threats posed by the enhanced greenhouse effect. There is strong evidence that shows that green house gases are causing global warming. This is very worrying as global warming has so many consequences on ecosystems. If nothing is done, and the green house gases are in fact causing the enhanced green house effect, by the time we realize it, it will probably be too late and result in catastrophic consequences. So even though there is no proof for global warming, the strong evidence suggesting that it is linked with an increase in green house gases is something we can not ignore. Global warming is a global problem. It affects everyone. For these reasons, the precautionary principle should be followed. Anyone supporting the notion that we can continue to emit same amounts or more of the green house gases should have to provide evidence that it will not cause a damaging increase in the green house effect. 5.2.6 Outline the consequences of a global temperature rise on arctic ecosystems. Global warming could have a number of disastrous consequences largely affecting the arctic ecosystems:

The arctic ice cap may disappear as glaciers start to melt and break up into icebergs. Permafrost will melt during the summer season which will increase the rate of decomposition of trapped organic matter, including peat and detritus. This in turn will increase the release of carbon dioxide which will increase the green house effect even further. Species adapted to temperature conditions will migrate north which will alter food chains and have consequences on the animals in the higher trophic levels. Marine species in the arctic water may become extinct as these are very sensitive to temperature changes within the sea water. Polar bears may face extinction as they loose their ice habitat and therefore can no longer feed or breed as they normally would. Pests and diseases may become quite common with rises in temperature. As the ice melts, sea levels will rise and flood low lying areas of land. Extreme weather events such as storms might become common and have disastrous effects on certain species.

Populations
5.3.1 Outline how population size is affected by natality, immigration, mortality and emigration.
Natality: increases population size as offspring are added to the population.

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Immigration: increases population size as individuals have moved into the area from somewhere else and so this adds to the population. Mortality: decreases the population as some individuals get eaten, die of old age or get sick. Emigration: decreases the population as individuals have moved out of the area to go live somewhere else.

5.3.2 Draw and label a graph showing a sigmoid (S-shaped) population growth curve.

5.3.3 Explain the reasons for the exponential growth phase, the plateau phase and the transitional phase between these two phases. The sigmoid graph showing the population growth of a species has three phases which are; the exponential phase, the transitional phase and the plateau phase. At the start of the sigmoid curve we can see the exponential phase. This is where there is a rapid increase in population growth as natality rate exceeds mortality rate. The reason for this is because there are abundant resources available such as food for all members of the population and diseases as well as predators are rare. As time passes, the population reaches the transitional phase. This is where the natality rate starts to fall and/or the mortality rate starts to rise. It is the result of a decrease in the abundance of resources, and an increase in the number of predators and diseases. However, even though population growth has decreased compared to the exponential phase, it is still increasing as natality rate still exceeds mortality rate. Finally, the population reaches the plateau phase. Here, the population size is constant so no more growth is occurring. This is the result of natality rate being equal to mortality rate and is caused by resources becoming scarce as well as an increase in predators, diseases and parasites. These are the limiting factors to the population growth. If natality rate starts to drop then mortality rate will drop too as more resources become available. As natality rate starts to increase again so does mortality rate as resources become 44

scarce. This keeps the population number relatively stable. If a population is limited by a shortage of resources then we say that it has reached the carrying capacity of the environment. Summary: Exponential phase:
1. 2. 3. 4. 1. 2. 3. 4. 1. 2. 3. 4. Rapid increase in population growth. Natality rate exceeds mortality rate. Abundant resources available. (food, water, shelter) Diseases and predators are rare. Natality rate starts to fall and/or mortality rate starts to rise. There is a decrease in the number of resources. An increase in the number of predators and diseases. Population still increasing but at a slower rate. No more population growth, population size is constant. Natality rate is equal to mortality rate. The population has reached the carrying capacity of the environment. The limited resources and the common predators and diseases keep the population numbers constant.

Traditional phase:

Plateau phase:

5.3.4 List three factors that set limits to population increase.


1. Shortage of resources (e.g. food) 2. Increase in predators 3. Increase in diseases and parasites

Evolution
5.4.1 Define evolution Evolution is the cumulative change in the heritable characteristics of a population.

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5.4.2 Outline the evidence for evolution provided by the fossil record, selective breeding of domesticated animals and homologous structures. Fossils, selective breeding and homologous structures have provided scientists with evidence that support the theory of evolution. As they started to study fossils they realised that these were not identical but had similarities with existing organisms. This suggested that organisms changed over time. Selective breeding of domesticated animals also provides this evidence as the domestic breeds have similar characteristics to the wild ones and can still breed with them. As selected wild individuals with desirable characteristics were bred, over time this resulted in a more desirable species from a human point of view. An example of this is the taming of wild wolves and their selective breeding in order to produce the domestic dogs we know today. This suggests that not only have these animals evolved but also that they can evolve rapidly. Finally scientists have found a number of homologous structures within different species. Many bones in the limbs are common to a number of species and therefore suggests that these have evolved from one common ancestor. 5.4.3 State that populations tend to produce more offspring than the environment can support. Populations tend to produce more offspring than the environment can support. 5.4.4 Explain that the consequence of the potential over production of offspring is a struggle for survival. If the mortality rate remains lower than the natality rate then a population will keep growing. As more offspring are produced, there will be less resources available to other members of the population. If there is an over production of offspring this will result in a struggle for survival within the species as the resources become scarce and individuals in the population will start to compete for these. This results in an increase in mortality rate as the weaker individuals in the population will lose out on these vital resources that are essential for their survival. 5.4.5 State that members of a species show variation. Members of a species show variation. 5.4.6 Explain how sexual reproduction promotes variation in a species. Sexual reproduction is important for promoting variation as even though mutations form new genes or alleles, sexual reproduction forms a new combination of alleles. There are two stages in sexual reproduction that promote variation in a species. The first one is during meiosis during which a large variety of genetically different gametes are produced by each individual. The second stage is fertilisation. Here, alleles from two different individuals are brought together to form one new individual. 5.4.7 Explain how natural selection leads to evolution. Individuals in a population differ from each other. Some individuals will have characteristics that make them well adapted to their environment whereas others will have characteristics that make them less adapted to their environment. The better adapted individuals are the ones that are more likely to survive and produce offspring while the less adapted ones are more likely to die. This is called natural selection. Natural selection results in the better adapted individuals

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to pass on their characteristics to more offspring as the lesser adapted ones are more likely to die before they reproduce. Over time, this result accumulates and a new generation is created with the favourable characteristics that makes this species better adapted to its environment. Natural selection has lead to the species evolving. 5.4.8 Explain two examples of evolution in response to environmental change; one must be antibiotic resistance in bacteria. Antibiotic resistance in bacteria is a common problem. It results from the transfer of a gene that gives resistance to a specific antibiotic usually by means of a plasmid to a bacterium. Some bacteria will then have this gene and become resistant to the specific antibiotic while others will lack the gene and so will die if exposed to the antibiotic. Over time, the non-resistant ones will all die off as doctors vaccinate patients, but the resistant ones will survive. Eventually, the resistant ones will be the only ones left as a result of natural selection and so a new antibiotic must be created. However, this has to be done on a regular basis as the bacteria keep evolving and become resistant to multiple antibiotics. The Peppered Moth is another example of evolution in response to environmental change. There are two types of these moths, one species has a light colour while the other one is darker. When Britain begun industrialising, the soot from the factories would land on trees and so the darker moths then had an advantage over the light ones as they could easily hide from predators. Before the soot, both types of moths were eaten by predators however now that the darker ones were able to hide the lighter ones got eaten more often.The population of the darker moths rapidly increased while that of the lighter ones rapidly decreased until only the dark moths were left. All the lighter moths were less adapted to the environmental change and so they could no longer survive in that new environment.

6. Human Health and Physiology

Digestion
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6.1.1 Explain why digestion of large food molecules is essential. There are two reasons why the digestion of large food molecules is vital. Firstly, the food we eat is made up of many compounds made by other organisms which are not all suitable for human tissues and therefore these have to be broken down and reassembled so that our bodies can use them. Secondly, the food molecules have to be small enough to be absorbed by the villi in the intestine through diffusion, facilitated diffusion or active transport and so large food molecules need to be broken down into smaller ones for absorption to occur. Summary:
1. Food needs to be broken down and reassembled. 2. Large food molecules need to be broken down into smaller ones.

6.1.2 Explain the need for enzymes in digestion. Enzymes are needed in the process of digestion as they are the biological catalysts which break down the large food molecules into smaller ones so that these can eventually be absorbed. Digestion can occur naturally at body temperature, however this process takes a very long time as it happens at such a slow rate. For digestion to increase in these circumstances, body temperature would have to increase as well. However this is not possible as it would interfere with other body functions.This is why enzymes are vital as they speed up this process by lowering the activation energy required for the reaction to occur and they do so at body temperature. Summary:
1. Enzymes break down large food molecules into smaller ones. 2. Speed up the process of digestion by lowering the activation energy for the reaction. 3. Work at body temperature.

6.1.3 State the source, substrate, products and optimum pH conditions for one amylase, one protease and one lipase.
Amylase Enzyme Source Substrate Products Optimum pH Salivary Amylase Salivary Glands Starch Maltose pH 7 Protease Pepsin Chief cells in stomach lining Proteins Small polypeptides pH 1.5 - 2 Lipase Pancreatic Lipase Pancreas Triglycerides such as fats and oils Fatty Acids and Glycerol pH 7

6.1.4 Draw and label a diagram of the digestive system.

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Figure 6.1.1 - The digestive system 6.1.5 Outline the functions of the stomach, small intestine and large intestine. The stomach is an important part of the digestive system. Firstly it secretes HCL which kills bacteria and other harmful organisms preventing food poisoning and it also provides the optimum conditions for the enzyme pepsin to work in (pH 1.5 - 2). In addition, the stomach secretes pepsin which starts the digestion of proteins into polypeptides and amino acids. Theses can then be absorbed by the villi in the small intestine. The small intestine is where the final stages of digestion occur. The intestinal wall secretes enzymes and it also receives enzymes from the pancreas. However the main function of the small intestine is the absorption of the small
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food particles resulting from digestion. It contains many villi which increase the surface area for absorption. The large intestine moves the material that has not been digested from the small intestine and absorbs water. This produces solid faeces which are then egested through the anus. Summary: Stomach:
1. Secretes HCL which kills bacteria. 2. HCL provides optimum pH for pepsin. 3. Secretes pepsin for protein digestion.

Small intestine:
1. Intestinal wall secretes enzymes 2. Receives enzymes from the pancreas. 3. Has villi for absorption of food particles.

Large intestine:
1. Moves material that has not been digested along. 2. Absorbes water. 3. Produces faeces.

6.1.6 Distinguish between absorption and assimilation. Absorption occurs when the food enters the body as the food molecules pass through a layer of cells and into the bodies tissues. This occurs in the small intestine which has many villi that are specialised for absorption. Assimilation occurs when the food molecules becomes part of the bodies tissue. Therefore, absorption is followed by assimilation. 6.1.7 Explain how the structure of the villus is related to its role in absorption and transport of the products of digestion. The structure of the villus is very specific. Firstly there is a great number of them so this increases the surface area for absorption in the small intestine. In addition the villi also have their own projections which are called microvilli. The many microvilli increase the surface area for absorption further. These microvilli have protein channels and pumps in their membranes to allow the rapid absorption of food by facilitated diffusion and active transport. Also, the villi contains an epithelial layer which is only one cell layer thick so that food can pass through easily and be absorbed quickly. The blood capillaries in the villus are very closely associated with the epithelium so that the distance for the diffusion of the food molecules is small. This thin layer of cells contains mitochondria to provide the ATP needed for the active transport of certain food molecules. Finally, there is a lacteal branch at the centre of the villus which carries away fats after absorption.

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Figure 6.1.2 - Intestinal villus Summary:


1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Many villi increase the surface area for absorption. Epithelium is only one cell layer thick and so food is quickly absorbed. Microvilli on the villi increase the surface area for absorption further. Protein channels and pumps are present in the microvilli for rapid absorption. The mitochondria in the epithelium provide ATP needed for active transport. Blood capillaries are very close to the epithelium so diffusion distance is small. The lacteal takes away fats after absorption.

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The Transport System


6.2.1 Draw and label a diagram of the heart showing the four chambers, associated blood vessels, valves and the root of the blood through the heart.

Figure 6.2.1 - The human heart 6.2.2 State that the coronary arteries supply heart muscle with oxygen and nutrients. The coronary arteries supply heart muscle with oxygen and nutrients. 6.2.3 Explain the actions of the heart in terms of collecting blood, pumping blood and opening and closing valves. The right atrium collects blood from the superior and inferior vena cava and the left atrium collects blood from the pulmonary veins. This blood then flows into the right and left ventricle which pump the blood into the arteries. The direction of the 52

blood flow is controlled by the atrioventricular valves and semilunar valves. When the atria contract the blood flows through the atrioventricular valves which are open, into the ventricle. At this stage the semilunar valves are closed so the ventricle fills with blood. The ventricles then contract which causes a rise in pressure. This rise in pressure first causes the atrioventricular valves to close preventing back flow of blood into the atria. Then the semilunar valves open allowing the expulsion of blood into the arteries. As this happens, the atria start to fill with blood again. The ventricles stop contracting leading to a fall in pressure which causes the semilunar valves to close, preventing back flow of blood from the arteries. When the ventricular pressure drops below the atrial pressure the atrioventricular valves open again and the cycle repeats. Summary:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Atria collect blood from veins. Atria contract, atrioventricular valves open. Blood is pumped into ventricles. Ventricle contracts, atrioventricular valves close and semilunar valves open. Blood is pumped into arteries, semilunar valves close. Cycle repeats.

6.2.4 Outline the control of the heartbeat in terms of myogenic muscle contraction, the role of the pacemaker, nerves, the medulla of the brain and epinephrine (adrenaline). The heart muscle can contract by itself, without the stimulation of a nerve. This is called myogenic muscle contraction. The region that initiates each contraction is found in the wall of the right atrium and is called the pacemaker. Every time the pacemaker sends out a signal, a heartbeat results. The pacemaker is under the influence of nerves and adrenaline. One nerve carries messages from the medulla of the brain to the pacemaker and speeds up the beating of the heart. Another nerve carries messages from the medulla of the brain to the pacemaker and slows down the beating of the heart. Finally, adrenaline (epinephrine) is carried by the blood and once it reaches the pacemaker it signals it to increase the beating of the heart. Summary:
1. Heart muscle can contract by itself (myogenic muscle contraction). 2. Pacemaker initiates contractions. 3. One nerve carries messages from the brain to the pacemaker to speed up the beating of the heart. 4. One nerve carries messages from the brain to the pacemaker to slow down the beating of the heart. 5. Adrenaline signals the pacemaker to increase the beating of the heart.

6.2.5 Explain the relationship between the structure and function of arteries, capillaries and veins. Arteries have a thick outer layer of longitudinal collagen and elastic fibers to avoid leaks and bulges. They have a thick wall which is essential to withstand the high pressures. They also have thick layers of circular elastic fibres and muscle fibres to help pump the blood through after each contraction of the heart. In addition the narrow lumen maintains the high pressure inside the arteries.

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Veins are made up of thin layers with a few circular elastic fibres and muscle fibres. This is because blood does not flow in pulses and so the vein walls cannot help pump the blood on. Veins also have thin walls which allows the near by muscles to press against them so that they become flat. This helps the blood to be pushed forwards towards the heart. There is only a thin outer layer of longitudinal collagen and elastic fibres as there is low pressure inside the vein and so little chance of bursting. Finally, a wide lumen is needed to accommodate the slow flowing blood due to the low pressure. Capillaries are made up of a wall that is only one cell layer thick and results in the distance for diffusion in and out of the capillary being very small so that diffusion can occur rapidly. They also contain pores within the their wall which allow some plasma to leak out and form tissue fluid. Phagocytes can also pass through these pores to help fight infections. In addition, the lumen of the capillaries is very narrow. This means that many capillaries can fit in a small space, increasing the surface area for diffusion. Summary: Arteries:
1. 2. 3. 4. Thick outer layer of longitudinal collagen and elastic fibres prevents leaks and bulges. Thick wall withstands high pressure. Thick layers of circular elastic fibres and muscle fibres to pump blood. Narrow lumen to maintain high pressure.

Veins:
1. Thin layer with few circular elastic fibres and muscle fibres as blood does not flow in pulses. 2. Thin walls so that nearby muscles can help push blood towards the heart. 3. Thin outer layer of longitudinal collagen and elastic fibers as pressure is low. 4. Wide lumen to accomodate the slow flowing blood.

Capillaries:
1. Wall is one cell layer thick so distance for diffusion is small. 2. Pores allow plasma to leak out and form tissue fluid. Phagocytes can also pass through pores. 3. Very narrow lumen so that many can fit in a small space.

6.2.6 State that blood is composed of plasma, erythrocytes, leucocytes (phagocytes and lymphocytes) and platelets. Blood is composed of plasma, erythrocytes, leucocytes (phagocytes and lymphocytes) and platelets. 6.2.7 State that the following are transported by the blood: nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, antibodies, urea and heat. Nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, antibodies, urea and heat are all transported by the blood.

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Defence against infectious diseases


6.3.1 Define pathogen. Pathogen: an organism or virus that causes a disease. 6.3.2 Explain why antibiotics are effective against bacteria but not against viruses. Antibiotics are produced by microorganisms to kill or control the growth of other microorganisms by blocking specific metabolic pathways within the cell. Since bacteria are so different to human cells, antibiotics can be taken by humans to kill bacteria without harming the human cells. Viruses on the other hand are different as they do not carry out many metabolic processes themselves. Instead they rely on a host cell (a human cell) to carry out these processes for them. Therefore viruses cannot be treated with antibiotics as it is impossible to harm the virus without harming the human cells. Summary:
1. Antibiotics block specific metabolic pathways in bacteria. 2. Bacteria are very different to human cells so human cells are not affected. 3. Viruses require host cell to carry metabolic processes for them and so antibiotics cannot be used to treat viruses. 4. Harming the virus would harm the human cells.

6.3.3 Outline the role of skin and mucous membranes in the defence against pathogens. The skin forms a physical barrier that prevents pathogens from entering the body as the outer layer is very tough. In addition the skin contains sebaceous glands which secret lactic acid and fatty acids which creates an acidic environment on the surface of the skin preventing the growth of pathogens. Mucous membranes form another type of barrier against pathogens. Mucous membranes are soft and moist areas of skin found in the trachea, nose, vagina and urethra. These membranes are not strong enough to create a physical barrier but they do have mucus which contain lysozyme enzymes that digest the phagocytes. Also, the mucus can be sticky such as in the trachea, and trap the pathogens which are then expelled up the trachea and out of the body by muscles within the trachea. Summary: Skin:
1. Forms a physical barrier. 2. Sebaceous glands secret lactic acid and fatty acids.

Mucous membranes:
1. Mucous contains lysozyme enzymes. 2. Mucous can be sticky and trap pathogens.

6.3.4 Outline how phagocytic leucocytes ingest pathogens in the blood and body tissues. Phagocytes are found in the blood and ingest pathogens. They do so by recognising pathogens and engulfing them by endocytosis. Enzymes within the phagocytes called lysosomes then digest the pathogens. Phagocytes can

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ingest pathogens in the blood but also within body tissue as they can pass through the pores of capillaries and into these tissues. 6.3.5 Distinguish between antigens and antibodies. Antibodies are proteins that defend the body against pathogens by binding to antigens on the surface of these pathogens and stimulating their destruction. Antigens are foreign substances which stimulate the production of antibodies. Antibodies usually only bind to one specific antigen. 6.3.6 Explain antibody production. Lymphocytes are a type of leukocyte which make antibodies. Each lymphocyte makes only one specific antibody. A large amount of different lymphocytes are needed so that the body can produce different types of antibodies. The antibodies are found on the surface of the plasma membrane of these lymphocytes with the antigen-combining site projecting outwards. Pathogens have antigens on their surface which bind to the antigencombining site of the antibodies of a specific lymphocyte. When this happens the lymphocyte becomes active and starts to make clones of itself by dividing by mitosis. These clones then start to make more of this specific antibody needed to defend the body against the pathogen. Summary:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Each lymphocyte makes one type of antibody. Antibodies are found on the surface of the lymphocyte. Pathogen have antigens on their surface. The antigens bind to the antibodies. Lymphocyte becomes active and makes clones of itself. The clones make more of the specific antibody.

6.3.7 Outline the effects of HIV on the immune system. The HIV virus (which causes AIDS) destroys a type of lymphocyte which has a vital role in antibody production. Over the years this results in a reduced amount of active lymphocytes. Therefore, less antibodies are produced which makes the body very vulnerable to pathogens. A pathogen that could easily be controlled by the body in a healthy individual can cause serious consequences and eventually lead to death for patients affected by HIV. 6.3.8 Discuss the cause, transmission and social implications of AIDS. Cause: HIV causes AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome). A syndrome is a group of symptoms that are found together. HIV destroys a type of lymphocyte which is vital for antibody production. Over the years, less active lymphocytes are produced which leads to a fall in the amount of antibodies. Pathogens that would normally be easily controlled by the body in healthy individuals can cause serious consequences and eventually lead to death for patients affected by HIV. The immune system is considerably weakened. Transmission: HIV is transmitted through body fluids from an infected person to an uninfected one. This can occur through vaginal and anal intercourse as well as oral sex if there are cuts or tears in the vagina, penis, mouth or intestine. It can also be transmitted by hypodermic needles that are shared by
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intravenous drug abusers. The small amount of blood present on these needles after their use may contain the virus and is enough to infect another person. Another way of transmission is through the placenta from mother to child, or through cuts during childbirth or in milk during breast feeding. Finally there is a risk of transmission in transfused blood or with blood products such as Factor VIII used to treat hemophiliacs. Social implications: Relatives and friends suffer grief. Families can also suffer from a loss of income as the person infected by HIV can lose their wage if they are unable to work and are refused life insurance. Also, HIV patients may find it hard to find partners, employment and even housing. Finally, AIDS can cause fear in a population and reduce sexual activity. Summary: Cause:
1. 2. 3. 4. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1. 2. 3. 4. HIV causes AIDS. HIV destroys a type of lymphocyte vital for antibody production. Overtime there are less active lymphocytes. The body becomes very vulnerable to pathogens. Through vaginal and anal intercourse as well as oral sex if cuts or tears are present. Through hypodermic needles shared by drug users. Through placenta from mother to child. Through cuts during child birth or in milk during breast feeding. Through transfused blood. Through blood factors such as Factor VIII used to treat hemophiliacs. Grief suffered by relatives and friends. Families can get poorer. Can be hard to find a partner, employment and housing. Can reduce sexual activity in a population.

Transmission:

Social Implications:

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Gas exchange
6.4.1 Distinguish between ventilation, gas exchange and cell respiration. Ventilation is the process of bringing fresh air into the alveoli and removing the stale air. It maintains the concentration gradient of carbon dioxide and oxygen between the alveoli and the blood in the capillaries (vital for oxygen to diffuse into the blood from the alveoli and carbon dioxide out of the blood into the alveoli). Gas exchange is the process of swapping one gas for another. It occurs in the alveoli of the lungs. Oxygen diffuses into the capillaries from the air in the alveoli and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the capillaries and into the air in the alveoli. Cell respiration releases energy in the form of ATP so that this energy can be used inside the cell. Cell respiration occurs in the mitochondria and cytoplasm of cells. Oxygen is used in this process and carbon dioxide is produced. 6.4.2 Explain the need for a ventilation system. A ventilation system is needed to maintain the concentration gradients of gases in the alveoli. Diffusion of gases occurs due to the concentration gradient of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the alveoli and the blood. The body needs to get rid of carbon dioxide which is a product of cell respiration and needs to take in oxygen as it is needed for cell respiration to make ATP. There must be a low concentration of carbon dioxide in the alveoli so that carbon dioxide can diffuse out of the blood in the capillaries and into the alveoli. Also there must be a high concentration of oxygen in the in the alveoli so that oxygen can diffuse into the blood in the capillaries from the alveoli. The ventilation system makes this possible by getting rid of the carbon dioxide in the alveoli and bringing in more oxygen. Summary:
1. 2. 3. 4. To maintain the concentration gradients of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveoli. The body needs oxygen to make ATP via cell respiration. The body needs to get rid of carbon dioxide which is a product of cell respiration. Oxygen needs to diffuse from the alveoli into the blood. Carbon dioxide needs to diffuse from the blood into the alveoli. 5. To do so there must be a high oxygen concentration and a low carbon dioxide concentration in the alveoli. 6. A ventilation system makes this possible by getting rid of the carbon dioxide in the alveoli and bringing in more oxygen.

6.4.3 Describe the features of alveoli that adapt them to gas exchange. Even though alveoli are so small there are huge numbers of them which results in a large surface area for gas exchange. Also the wall of the alveoli is made up of a single layer of thin cells and so are the capillaries, this creates a short diffusion distance for the gases. Therefore this allows rapid gas exchange. The alveoli are covered by a dense network of blood capillaries which have a low oxygen and high carbon dioxide concentrations. This allows oxygen to diffuse into the blood and carbon dioxide to diffuse out of the blood. Finally, there are cells in the alveolar walls which secrete a fluid that keeps the inner surface of the alveoli moist, allowing gases to dissolve. This fluid also contains a natural detergent that prevents the sides of the alveoli from sticking together.

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Summary:
1. Great numbers increase the surface area for gas exchange. 2. Wall made up of single layer of cells and so are the walls of the capillaries so diffusion distance is small allowing rapid gas exchange. 3. Covered by a dense network of capillaries which have low oxygen and high carbon dioxide concentrations. This allows oxygen to diffuse into the blood and carbon dioxide to diffuse out of the blood. 4. Some cells in the walls secret fluid allowing gases to dissolve. Fluid also prevents the sides of alveoli from sticking together.

6.4.4 Draw and label a diagram of the ventilation system, including trachea, lungs, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli.

Figure 6.4.1 - The ventilation system 6.4.5 Explain the mechanism of ventilation of the lungs in terms of volume and pressure changes caused by the internal and external intercostal muscles, the diaphragm and the abdominal muscles. Inhalation: - The external intercostal muscles contract. This moves the ribcage up and out. - The diaphragm contracts. As it does so it moves down and becomes relatively flat. - Both of these muscle contractions result in an increase in the volume of the 59

thorax which in turn results in a drop in pressure inside the thorax. - Pressure eventually drops below atmospheric pressure. - Air then flow into the lungs from outside the body, through the mouth or nose, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles. - Air continues to enter the lungs until the pressure inside the lungs rises to the atmospheric pressure. Exhalation: - The internal intercostal muscles contract. This moves the ribcage down and in. - The abdominal muscles contract. This pushes the diaphragm up, back into a dome shape. - Both of these muscle contractions result in a decrease in the volume of the thorax. - As a result of the decrease in volume, the pressure inside the thorax increases. - Eventually the pressure rises above atmospheric pressure. - Air then flows out of the lungs to outside of the body through the nose or mouth. - Air continues to flow out of the lungs until the pressure in the lungs has fallen back to atmospheric pressure.

Nerves, hormones and homeostasis


6.5.1 State that the nervous system consists of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nerves, and is composed of cells called neurons that can carry rapid electrical impulses. The nervous system consists of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nerves, and is composed of cells called neurons which carry rapid electrical impulses. 6.5.2 Draw and label a diagram of the structure of a motor neuron.

Figure 6.5.1 - A motor neuron

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6.5.3 State that nerve impulses are conducted from receptors to the CNS by sensory neurons, within the CNS by relay neurons, and from the CNS to effectors by motor neurons. Nerve impulses are conducted from receptors to the CNS by sensory neurons, within the CNS by relay neurons, and from the CNS to effectors by motor neurons. 6.5.4 Define resting potential and action potential (depolarization and repolarization). Resting potential: the electrical potential across the plasma membrane of a cell that is not conducting an impulse. Action potential: the reversal and restoration of the electrical potential across the plasma membrane of a cell, as an electrical impulse passes along it (depolarization and repolarization). 6.5.5 Explain how a nerve impulse passes along a non-myelinated neuron. Sodium is found in greater concentrations outside of the cell while potassium is found in greater concentrations inside the cell. Sodium-potassium pumps exist in the plasma membrane to maintain the the concentration gradients and the membrane potential. Nerve impulses have a domino effect. An action potential in one part of the neuron causes another action potential in the adjacent part and so on. This is due to the diffusion of sodium ions between the region of the action potential and the resting potential. It is the movement of sodium and potassium that reduce the resting potential. If the resting potential rises above the threshold level, voltage gated channels open. Voltage gated sodium channels open very fast so that sodium can diffuse into the cell down its concentration gradient. This reduces the membrane potential and results in more sodium channels opening. Sodium ions are positively charged and so the inside of the cell develops a net positive charge compared to the outside of the cell. This results in depolarization as the potential across the membrane is reversed. A short while after this, voltage gated potassium channels open and potassium ions flow out of the cell down the concentration gradient. Since potassium ions are positively charged, their diffusion out of the cell causes a net negative charge to develop again inside the cell compared to the outside. The potential across the membrane is restored. This is called repolarization. Finally, the concentration gradients of both ions are restored by the sodiumpotassium pump. Sodium is pumped out of the cell while potassium is pumped in. The resting potential is restored and the neuron is ready to conduct another nerve impulse. Summary:
1. 2. 3. 4. Resting potential rises above threshold level. Voltage gated sodium channels open. Sodium ions flow into the cell, more sodium channels open. Inside of cell develops a net positive charge compared to the outside and results in depolarization. 5. Voltage gated potassium channels open. 6. Potassium ions flow out of the cell.

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7. Cell develops a net negative charge compared to the outside and results in repolarization. 8. Concentration gradients restored by sodium-potassium pumps. 9. Resting potential is restored.

6.5.6 Explain the principles of synaptic transmissions. A synapse is a junction that permits a neuron to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another cell. At a synapse, the plasma membrane of the signal passing neuron (presynaptic neuron) is closely related to the plasma membrane of the target cell (postsynaptic neuron). Between the two there is a narrow fluid filled space called the synaptic cleft. Chemical signals called neurotransmitters pass from the presynaptic neuron to the post synaptic neuron. This is how a synaptic transmission occurs: An action potential travels along the neuron and reaches the end of the presynaptic neuron. The depolarization of the pre-synaptic membrane results in the opening of voltage gated calcium channels. Calcium ions flow into the presynaptic neuron and cause vesicles with neurotransmitters inside the neuron to fuse with the plasma membrane and release the neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft via exocytosis. These neurotransmitters then diffuse within the synaptic cleft and some will bind to specific receptors located on the postsynaptic plasma membrane. The receptors are transmitted-gated ion channels which open and let sodium and other positively charged ions into the postsynaptic neuron when the neurotransmitters bind. As these positively charged ions enter the postsynaptic neuron they cause its membrane to depolarize. This depolarization results in an action potential which passes down the postsynaptic neuron. The neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft are then quickly degraded and the calcium ions are pumped back into the synaptic cleft from inside the presynaptic neuron.

Figure 6.5.2 - Synaptic transmission

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Summary:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Action potential reaches the end of a presynaptic neuron. Voltage gated calcium channels open. Calcium ions flow into the presynaptic neuron. Vesicles with neurotransmitters inside the presynaptic neuron fuse with the plasma membrane. Neurotransmitters diffuse in the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. The receptors are channels which open and let sodium ions into the postsynaptic neuron. The sodium ions cause the postsynaptic membrane to depolarize. This causes an action potential which passes down the postsynaptic neuron. Neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft are degraded and the calcium ions are pumped back into the synaptic cleft.

6.5.7 State that endocrine systems consist of glands that release hormones that are transported in the blood. The endocrine system consists of glands that release hormones that are transported in the blood. 6.5.8 State that homeostasis involves maintaining the internal environment between limits, including blood pH, carbon dioxide concentration, blood glucose concentration, body temperature and water balance. Homeostasis involves maintaining the internal environment between limits, including blood pH, carbon dioxide concentration, blood glucose concentration, body temperature and water balance. 6.5.9 Explain that homeostasis involves monitoring levels of variables and correcting changes in levels by negative feedback mechanisms. Homeostasis involves maintaining the internal environment between limits, including blood pH, carbon dioxide concentration, blood glucose concentration, body temperature and water balance. Blood and tissue fluid (derived from blood) make up the internal environment. This internal environment varies very little compared to the external environment which varies greatly. Negative feed back is used to keep the internal environment between limits. It uses the nervous and endocrine system to do so. It has a stabilising effect as any change from a set point level will result in an opposite change. The levels of production of for example blood glucose, feed back to affect the rate of production. If blood glucose levels rise above the set point, this will feed back to decrease production and reduce the level back around the set point. A decrease in blood glucose levels below the set point will result in an increase in production so that the levels increase back to the set point. Small fluctuations around the set point will not cause any response. Negative feed back is only triggered when there are significant increases or decreases from the set point. Summary:
1. Homeostasis maintains the internal environment between limits. 2. Negative feed back is used to do so. Any change from a set point results in an opposite change.

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6.5.10 Explain the control of body temperature, including the transfer of heat in the blood, and the roles of the hypothalamus, sweat glands and skin, arterioles and shivering. The hypothalamus is responsible for monitoring the temperature of the blood which is normally close to 37 degrees. If there are significant fluctuations from this set point, the hypothalamus sends signals (messages carried by neurons) to different parts of the body to restore the temperature back to the set point. This is done through negative feedback.
If blood temperature significantly increases above the set point Skin arterioles increase in diameter so that more blood flows to the skin. By doing so it transfers heat from the core of the body to the skin and this heat is then lost to the external environment, cooling down the body in the process. Skeletal muscle stays relaxed so that more heat is not generated. Sweat glands secrete large amounts of sweat which makes the surface of the skin moist. When water evaporates from the moist skin it cools down the body. If blood temperature significantly drops bellow the set point Skin arterioles decrease in diameter so that less blood flows to the skin. The diameter of the capillaries in the skin cannot change but less blood flows through them. This prevents heat loss to the external environment as the temperature of the skin falls. Shivering occurs. This is when the skeletal muscle does many small rapid contractions to generate heat. Sweat glands to not secrete sweat and so no water evaporation can occur as skin stays dry.

6.5.11 Explain the control of blood glucose concentration, including the role of glucagon, insulin and and cells in the pancreatic islets. Blood glucose concentration does not have a specific set point like blood temperature. Blood glucose levels drop and rise through the day and so the body usually tries to keep blood glucose levels around 4 to 8 millimoles per dm 3 of blood. Once again, negative feedback is used to do so. There are responses by target organs which affect the rate at which glucose is taken up from the blood or loaded into the blood.
Response to blood glucose levels above the set point cells in the pancreatic islets produce insulin. Insulin stimulates muscle cells and the liver cells to take up glucose from the blood and convert it into glycogen. These are then stored in the form of granules in the cytoplasm of cells. Also, other types of cells are stimulated to take up glucose and use it for cell respiration instead of fat. All of these processes lower the levels of glucose in the blood. Response to blood glucose levels below the set point cells in the pancreatic islets produce glucagon. Glucagon stimulates the liver cells to convert glycogen back into glucose and release this glucose into the blood. This raises the glucose levels in the blood.

6.5.12 Distinguish between type I and type II diabetes. 64

Type I diabetes The onset is usually early, sometime during childhood. cells do not produce enough insulin. Diet by itself cannot be used to control the condition. Insulin injections are needed to control glucose levels.

Type II diabetes The onset is usually late, sometime after childhood. Target cells become insensitive to insulin. Insulin injections are not usually needed. Low carbohydrate diet can control the condition.

Reproduction
6.6.1 Draw and label diagrams of the adult male and female reproductive systems.

Figure 6.6.1 - The female reproductive system

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Figure 6.6.2 - The male reproductive system 6.6.2 Outline the role of hormones in the menstrual cycle, including FSH (follicle stimulating hormones), LH (luteinizing hormone), estrogen and progesterone. The menstrual cycle:

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1. FSH is secreted by the pituitary gland and its levels start to rise. This stimulates the follicle to develop and the follicle cells to secret estrogen. 2. Estrogen then causes the follicle cells to make more FSH receptors so that these can respond more strongly to the FSH. 3. This is positive feedback and causes the estrogen levels to increase and stimulate the thickening of the endometrium (uterus lining). 4. Estrogen levels increase to a peak and by doing so it stimulates LH secretion from the pituitary gland. 5. LH then increases to its peak and causes ovulation (release of egg from the follicle). 6. LH then stimulates the follicle cells to secrete less estrogen and more progesterone. Once ovulation has occurred, LH stimulated the follicle to develop into the corpus luteum. 7. The corpus luteum then starts to secrete high amounts of progesterone. This prepares the uterine lining for an embryo. 8. The high levels of estrogen and progesterone then start to inhibit FSH and LH. 9. If no embryo develops the levels of estrogen and progesterone fall. This stimulates menstruation (break down of the uterine lining). When the levels of these two hormones are low enough FSH and LH start to be secreted again. 10. FSH levels rise once again and a new menstrual cycle begins.

6.6.3 Annotate a graph showing hormone levels in the menstrual cycle, illustrate the relationship between changes in hormone levels and ovulation, menstruation and the thickening of the endometrium. 6.6.4 List three roles of testosterone in males. Roles:
1. Stimulates the development of prenatal genitalia. 2. Stimulates the development of the male secondary sexual characteristics such as growth of the skeletal muscle and pubic hair. 3. During adulthood it maintains the sex drive.

6.6.5 Outline the process of in vitro fertilization (IVF). Process:


1. For a period of three weeks, the women has to have a drug injected to stop her normal menstrual cycle. 2. After these three weeks, high doses of FSH are injected once a day for 10-12 days so that many follicles develop in the ovaries of the women. 3. HCG (another hormone) is injected 36 hours before the collection of the eggs. HCG loosens the eggs in the follicles and makes them mature. 4. The man needs to ejaculate into a jar so that sperm can be collected from the semen. The sperm are processed to concentrate the healthiest ones. 5. A device that is inserted through the wall of the vagina is used to extract the eggs from the follicles. 6. Each egg is then mixed with sperm in a shallow dish. The dishes are then put into an incubator overnight. 7. The next day the dishes are looked at to see if fertilization has happened. 8. If fertilization has been successful, two or three of the embryos are chosen to be placed in the uterus by the use of a long plastic tube. 9. A pregnancy test is done a few weeks later to find out if any of the embryos have implanted. 10. A scan is done a few weeks later to find out if the pregnancy is progressing normally.

6.6.6 Discuss the ethical issues associated with IVF.

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Arguments for IVF

Arguments against IVF

Many types of infertility are due to The infertility of the parents may be environmental factors rather than genetic inherited by their offspring passing on which means that the offspring would not the suffering to the next generation. inherit the infertility. The embryos that are killed during the IVF process cannot feel pain or suffering as they do not have a developed nervous system. Suffering caused by genetic diseases can be decreases by screening the embryos before placing them into the uterus. Since the IVF process is not an easy one emotionally and physically, is costly, takes time and there are no guarantees, parents who are willing to go through it must have a strong desire to have children and therefore are likely to be loving parents. Infertility can cause emotional suffering to couples who want to have children. IVF can take away this suffering for some of those couples. More embryos are produced than needed and the ones that remain are usually killed which denies them the chance of a life. Embryologists select which embryos will be placed into the uterus. Therefore they decide the fate of new individuals as they choose which ones will survive and which ones will die. IVF is not a natural process which takes place in a laboratory compared to natural conception which occurs as a result of an act of love.

Infertility should be accepted as Gods will and to go against it by using IVF procedures would be wrong.

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