On a Lemma of Volterra

Octav Dragoi March 18, 2011

This article wishes to present a generalization of a lemma of Volterra.

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1.1

Original Lemma
Statement

Let f, g : R R be two arbitrary functions, and denote by Cf , Cg the sets of points in R where f and g respectively are continuous. Then, if Cf and Cg are both dense in R, then Cf Cg = .

1.2

Proof

1 Take an arbitrary a1 Cf . Then I1 = [a1 , a1 + ] such that |f (x) f (a1 )| < 2 , x I1 , because f is continuous in a1 . Then we have |f (x) f (y)| |f (x) f (a1 )| + 1 |f (y) f (a1 )| 2 + 1 = 1, x, y I1 . 2 Consider now b1 Cg I1 , but not at one of the ends of I1 . (notice that we are using the fact that Cg is dense in R). On the same principle as before, consider J1 a closed interval 1 centered in b1 , for which |g(x) g(b 1)| < 2 , that is, |g(x) g(y)| < 1, x, y J1 . We can suppose without loss of generality that I1 J1 (we can take J1 as small as needed).

We will now carry on the procedure, and we will construct a sequence of intervals 1 I1 J1 I2 J2 . . ., at each step making sure that |f (x) f (y)| < n , x, y In and 1 |g(x) g(y)| < n , x, y Jn , for any natural number n (at each step we use the fact that Cf and Cg are dense in R) and that the endpoints do not overlap. By Cantors Intersection Theorem we conclude that there is t R such that t In , Jn , n N . We will now prove that t Cf Cg . Take > 0. Consider n suciently large such that 1 > n . Since t In and is not an endpoint (by construction), we know that > 0 such 1 that |f (x) f (t)| < n < , x (t , t + ) (take (t , t + ) In ), so f is continuous in t. The proof for g continuous in t is analogous.

A Generalization

The idea of this generalization is to raise the number of functions as much as possible, thus intersecting more sets and strengthening the lemma. We will now supply a proof for a countable number of functions, which may have a number of interesting consequences.

2.1

Statement

Let {fn |fn : R R, n N} be a family of functions, and let Cn be the set of continuity points of fn for every n. If Cn is dense in R for every n, then nN Cn is nonempty and dense in R.

2.2

Proof

We will construct another sequence of including intervals, making sure to cover all the functions at the same time. For every m, n N, m = 0 denote by I(n, m) = {J 1 interval||fn (x) fn (y)| < m , x, y J}. We will prove the following: 2.2.1 Lemma

For any closed interval I and any m, n N, m = 0, there is a closed interval J I, J I(n, m) which does not have overlapping endpoints with I. For the proof, consider an arbitrary interval I, and m, n N, m = 0. Since Cn is dense in R, there is an element in Cn I (we take it such that it is not an endpoint trivial to see it is possible). Denote it by a. Since a is a continuity point of fn , there 1 exists > 0 such that |fn (x) fn (a)| < 2m , x (a , a + ), that is, |f (x) f (y)| 1 1 |f (x) f (a)| + |f (y) f (a)| < 2 2m = m , x, y (a , a + ). Since a is not an endpoint of I, we know that there is a closed interval J in I(a , a+ ), and which does not have common endpoints with I, thus the lemma is proved. We will now continue with the proof of the statement. Since N N is countable (well-known folklore - Cantors diagonalization method) we can order the sets I(n, m) in a sequence (Sn )nN . Now, take an arbitrary interval I. Using Lemma 2.2.1 we construct a sequence of descending intervals (In )nN such that In+1 In , In Sn and In and In+1 do not have overlapping endpoints. By Cantors Intersection Theorem, we conclude that there exists t nN Sn and we will prove that t is a continuity point for any fn . Since I is arbitrary, the conclusion follows. 1 Take an arbitrary n N and > 0. Consider m suciently large such that > m . Since t nN Sn we have t I(n, m) = Sk for some k N. Since t is not an endpoint of this interval (that would mean that t is not in Sk+1 ) there exists > 0 such that

(t , t + ) I(n, m), which means |f (t) f (x)| < continuous in t, for any n N and the result is proved.

1 m,

x (t , t + ). So fn is

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3.1

Consequences and Observations

A consequence of Volterra Lemma, Restated

One main consequence of the original lemma is that there does not exist f : R R such that f is continuous in every rational point and discontinous in every irrational point. It implies the Riemann function, which is dened as following: f (x) = 0
1 n

xR\Q x = m , (m, n) = 1 n

This is an example of a function which is continuous on R \ Q and discontinuous on Q, thus having the continuity points set R \ Q. If a function f like the one in the statement exists, then it has the continuity set points Q, and, because both of the sets are dense in R, we obtain a contradiction. We can simplify everything. We will show that there does not exist a function with dense, yet countable many continuity points. Suppose that f is such a function, and denote by (an )nN its continuity points. Consider the functions: gn (x) = 0 1 x = an x = an

The function gn has the continuity points set R \ {an }, which is dense in R. Thus the intersection of all the continuity points sets of f and gn , n N is the empty set, a contradiction.

3.2

What about broader generalizations?

We managed to rise the number of functions from just two to innite, but countable. The next question we may ask ourselves is if we can go even further. Can we do it for a higher transnite number of functions? Since we cannot say anything about the transnite cardinals between 0 and c without assuming or not the continuum hypothesis, we will limit to exploring the continuum. Unfortunately, the lemma fails to work in this case, which is easy to see by looking at the example: g (x) = 0 1 x= x=

It is easy to see that the continuity points set of g is C = R \ {}, which is dense in R, and R C = . 3