putations are slightly reduced by supplying the reactance. Unfortunately, we do not know the programming time required.

In reply to Mr. Savage, the earth resistivity was used as it appears in standard equations. We do have an X, map of our service area and the X, values are used in accordance with the line location. If Xp were not available we would have to estimate a value. The output from this program is used primarily in relay and circuit-breaker duty

studies which do not demand extreme accuracy. Therefore, we have placed no restrictions on its use. The largest practical problem yet solved had 50 conductors comprising 10 lines on separate towers. We realize that this solution is not exact because of the omission of terms of the series in calculating the mutual impedances used in the matrix. We presently plan to include additional terms to improve accuracy when the program is revised. So far as is known, the tensor method introduces no error so long as

the basic constants are introduced into the

a number that can be used to collate the cards prior to use on the 704. The 704 program does not check these numbers. Cards out of order in the deck should be expected to cause errors. We consider floating-poimt output to be superior to fixed-point output in most engineering work because we frequently do not know an appropriate scale factor for the answer.

matrix correctly. Each card carries

Calculation or Transmission-Line Impedances by Digital Computer

AUGUSTUS 0. THOMAS
MEMBER AIEE

CALCULATION of positive- and zerosequence and mutual impedances of transmission lines can be done effectively on a digital computer. Practically all impedances for the 66- and 220-kv lines on the Pennsylvania Power & Light Company system were calculated by this method using an IBM(International Business Machines Corporation) type 650 computer. To illustrate the computer method, this paper describes: 1. the research to obtain basic physical transmission-line data, 2. the method used to combine and list large quantities of data forcard punching, 3. themajorcomponents of the program, and 4. the final tabulation of impedances. Application of the computer for this purpose came about because of inaccuracies and discrepancies between impedance values used by various departments of the author's company. In the past, each department separately accumulated values of transmission-line impedances. These were sometimes calculated from different sources of approximate line data. To standardize on data used throughout the author's company, a representative committee was appointed to determine general system constants to be published, the form of tabulation, and to assign departmental responsibility. This resulted in the publication of a listing on "system electrical constants," including
Paper 58-1098, recommended by the AIEE System Engineering Committee and approved by the AIEE Technical Operations Department for presentation at the AIEE Power Industry Computer Application
made available for printing August 1, 1958. AUoUSTus 0. TROMAS is with the Pennsylvania Power & Light Company, Allentown, Pa.

data on synchronous machines, reactors, transformers, and transmission lines. The committee agreed to list for transmission lines: 1. the positive-sequence impedances in per unit on 100 mva (megavolt-amperes) at 60 and 200 kv; 2. the positive-sequence impedance in per cent on 100 mva at 66 and 220 kv; and 3. the zero-sequence and mutual impedances in per cent on 50 mva at 66 and 220 kv. Items 2 and 3 are standard for use on load-flow and short-circuit studies. Item 1 is a special listing for load-flow studies which puts analyzer voltmeters on a more convenient base to allow recording of kv instead of per-unit voltage.

Discussion
BAsIc LINE DATA

and overhead ground wires and spacing between them do not change. Usually several line pieces exist in each line section. Impedances were calculated for a total of about 1,500 line pieces. Manual calculation of this number of zero-sequence and mutual impedances would be prohibitive to say nothing of the mistakes which would occur. The high-speed electronic computer provides an ideal method for obtaining accurate impedance data. The purpose of publishing reliable impedance data for Company-wide use justifies the effort involved in listing basic data from transmission-line prints. With final impedances tabulated for all existing transmission lines on the system, little work is required to list the basic information for new lines or for. changes in old lines. When conditions warrant, impedances for additions and
-v;7WIRE
F
OVERHEAD GROUND

tween two substation terminals. A section of line pertains to the portion between a terminal and tap point, or between two tap points. A piece of line is that part of a line for which the phase

cussion, the following terms are used as hereby defined. A line is the standard Company designation for a circuit be-

Conference, Toronto, Ont., Canada, September 15-17, 1958. Manuscript submitted June 5, 1958;

Usually the transmission-line impedances were calculated using average data along sections of lines. Although this was fairly accurate, particularly for the newer lines, it was decided that for inclusion in a tabulation of system electrical constants more specific basic physical data on each line were necessary. The Company's Transmission Section reviewed all available design drawings of transmission lines on the system. Listed for each line were the length in miles, size and type of phase conductors and overhead ground wires, and the horizontal and vertical spacing of these on the structure. A change in any one factor requires a separate calculation of impedances for that "piece" of line. To clarify understanding of this dis-

dbx

CONDUCTOR

PHASE

E=O

(A)
Fdbc =

(B) dab =(A+B)2+E2

**- t

C-A i-]
2

D=O 0
E

C-B)2+(D+E)2 dca= (A+C)2 t D2 dax = JA2+ (E + F)2

dcx =

dbx=B2+F2

42+(DtEtF)S

(C) (D) Fig. 1. Single-circuit line with one overhead

ground wire

1270

Thomas-Cakulktion of Transmission-Line Impedances

FEBRUARY 1959

changes will be calculated and the tabulation revised.

COMPUTER INPUT DATA Following is a complete list of the input data to the digital computer for each line piece: 1. Line identification number. 2. Section identification number. 3. Length of line piece, miles. 4. Code number designating configuration. 5. Phase-conductor resistance per mile. 6. Phase-conductor reactance per mile at 1-foot spacing. 7. Overhead-ground-wire resistance per mile. 8. Overhead-ground-wire reactance per mile at 1-foot spacing. 9. Horizontal and vertical structure di-

mensions, feet.

The line and section numbers, to identify the input data with a specific line, can be assigned prior to listing for card punching. These numbers are perma-

nent with each line except when necessary to insert more new lines than provided for in the assignment of line numbers to the alphabetical tabulation. The computer output cards are filed for future use in revising the tabulation for changes or additions of new lines. Code numbers designating the configuration allow the computer to select the proper sequence of instructions, different for each of the possible six code configurations. These code numbers are assigned on the basis of single- or doublecircuit lines with none, one, or two overhead ground wires. For example, a single-circuit line without overhead ground wires is code 1, and a single-circuit line with one ground wire is code 2. This holds true regardless of the actual structure configuration of phase or ground wires. The other items listed in the foregoing are self-explanatory except the structure dimensions, for which a brief discussion is pertinent. Horizontal and vertical dimensions are read into the computer and

the actual spacings between individual conductors and ground wires are calculated by the digital computer. Careful designation of the horizontal and vertical dimensions is important. This is illustrated by Figs. 1 (A) through (C), showing a single-circuit line with one overhead ground wire, and the equations, Fig. 1 (D), to calculate the distances in feet between conductors and ground wires for these three configurations. Shown in Fig. 2 is the special form prepared to set up this data for IBM card punching. Input data cards accommodate five words (five different items of information of ten digits each) and a imum of 15 words is required for calculating impedances of a double-circuit line with two overhead ground wires. The program read-in instruction requires that 15 words be read into the computer so those words that do not apply to a particular line piece are entered as zeros. Filling out the special form requires a minimum amount of work. The line and section numbers can be assigned be-

|-i II PCH
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DATA SHEET
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NO.(75--7

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oo

Fig. 2. Transmission-line basic data sheet

FEMBRUAY 1959

Thomas-Cakulation of Transmission-Line Impedances

1271

STRARIN

TSTFO

Fig. 3. Flow diagram of impedance calculations

BCH LINE IPEDANCES
:> SECION

ITEST FOR SAAAE ISECT-NUMEX

ICONFIGURATION-

DETERMINE

PEDANCES

)OUBLECKT I OVERHEAD GRD.WIRE

DOUBLECKT 20'VERHEAD GRD WIRES

CALCULATE

Bo(g)

CALCULATE

Zo (g)

Zom (ag)

ALCULATE

CA.CULATE

Zom (ag)

ZALCULAT'E

Zom(aa) Zom(aa')
CALCULATE Z m

ICALCULATE

fore or during listing of data on the forms as previously stated. The length, configuration code, and dimensions A through G inclusive are taken from the basic line data. Resistances and reactances for the phase conductors and overhead ground wires listed for all the different wires used on 66- and 220-kv lines complete the information in ready form. By placing the decimal point in the center of each word on the form and filling in excessive digit locations with zeros, the time to list the data is reduced to a minimum. The resulting process is similar to a production line for assembling mass-produced items. The simplicity of the form permits a clerk or nontechnical employee to carry out listing of data for card punching.
THE COMPUTER PROGRAM The computer program is written in

instructions are needed compared with basic machine instructions, therefore, far less time is required to complete coding; and 3. no knowledge of the more intricate basic machine language or operation of the computer is necessary. A disadvantage is the additional machine time required during calculations. However, since this program will only be used once or twice a year in the future to calculate impedances for relatively few lines, the time required on the computer is not a

criterion.

figurations. Two auxiliary programs are imcluded to convert data from fixed-decimal to floating-point form (256.83 = 2.568300052 in floating-point for BLIS) and

of these equations is adequately described in references 3-and 4. The flow diagram shown in Fig. 3, in condensed form, illustrates the sequence of operations used in the program. Data are read into the computer for a line piece, and the line number is tested to determine if it is part of the previous line. If part of the previous line, the section number is tested to determnine if it is part of the previous section. The second test is necessary for desired computer output, as the final tabulation includes the impedances between substations and tap points as well as those for the entire line. Finally, the configuration code number is tested to determine the type of line; i.e., single- or double-circuit line with none, one, or two overhead ground wires. About 8 hours were required by the computer to calculate impedances, for approximately 1,500 line pieces. Since this work could be completed piecemeal, use was made of the computer during short periods between computer use for higher priority work. Programming time is reduced by writing instructions for solution of various equations as separate blocks within the program. Since different combinations of equations are used to determine the positive, zero, and mutual impedances, calculations were carried out by transferring control to and from blocks of instructions. This is accomplished by modifying instructions as specified by the program section making up complete calculations for a particular configuration. The flow diagram (Fig. 3) illustrates transfer of control for solution of equations which are common to several con-

executed by the computer Advantages in using this method are: 1. simplicity in understanding the instructions; 2. fewer

BLIS1 (Bell Laboratory Interpretive System) for the IBM 650 calculator. The interpretive routine is a program, stored on the upper half of a 2,000-word magnetic storage drum, which translates instructions coded in the interpretive system into basic machine language2 to be

calculated from the following equation (1) Z, = ra j(xa+xd) ohms/phase/mile where ra is the conductor resistance per mile, xa is the conductor reactance per mile at 1-foot spacing, and xd is the inductive reactance (reactances are for frequency of 60 cycles per second) for spacing beyond one foot, defined by the equation
Xd(0.2794)(1/3) log (dabdbcdca) ohms/phase/mile
with da, dbc, and dc,a being the distance in feet between conductors; see Fig. 1 (A). Equations for the zero-sequence and the mutual impedances are shown in the Appendix. The theory and development

The positive-sequence impedance is

back to fixed-decimal form. Input data are in fixed-decimal form and are converted to floating-point for calculations. A major advantage of using the interpretive routine is elimination of need for keeping track of the decimal point so necessary in basic machine language. Just prior to punching the calculated impedance answers, the values are converted back to the fixed-decimal form. Fewer mistakes are made and the data are easier to check when the fixed-decimal form is used outside the computer.

FINAL TABULATION

Tabulation of impedances in the form issued is shown in Fig. 4. Because of the urgency of other work at the time the final tabulation was prepared it was done
FEBRUARY 1959

1272

Thomas-Calculation of Transmission-Line Impedances

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1273

FEBRUARY 1959

Thomas-Calculation of Transmission-Line Impedances

by a typist. Listing the computer output data with proper coluimn spacings is easily accomplished by a control panel for the tabulator. It is possible to add the page headings and line and section names on the tabulator to be printed with the impedance data. However, the frequency with which revised tabulations will be issued does not justify the time involved in wiring a control panel for the tabulator to include the line and section names and the limiting wire size. Each computer output card contains the line and section number and all impedance data shown on the tabulation. Inspection will show a total of 15 items of data per card. This is accomplished by combining two values per word on the storage drum after converting to fixeddecimal form. The punch instruction is given in basic machine language (transfer out of the interpretive routine) for output of eight words per card rather than the five or six words per card common to the BLIS program.

to prepare and to test the program. Now that the program is readily available, practically no engineering time will be required to calculate impedances in the future or to revise the tabulation. 3. Estimated savings in cost to the author's company using the high-speed computer are about 75% of the cost for manual calculations. The comparison includes all costs except those to assemble basic line data and to prepare the final tabulation. 4. Application of the program to transmission lines of all voltages can be made by simply changing three constants in the computer for converting impedances to per-ct and per-unit values on the desired base from values calculated in ohms.

ZO(,) -3/2r, + r +j(xo+3/2x9 -3/2xd)

xd -(0.2794)(log dm1)

ohms/phase/mile

(5)

Zero-sequence mutual impedance between one circuit (with earth return) and two ground wires (with earth return) is expressed
as

(dadaaydbzdexdc,,) (6) Zero-sequence impedance, one circuit with n ground wires (and earth return), is expressed as
Zo Zo(a) - [
zo(g) Zero-sequence mutual impedance between two circuits (with earth return) and with one or two ground wires (with earth return) is expressed as

Zin (a) re+j(x, -3xd) ohms/phase/mile x- (0.2794)(1/6) log

m(a)]

ohms/mile

(7)

Appendix. Zero-Sequence and Mutual-Impedance Equationss For Frequency of 60 Cycles per Second
Zero-sequence self-impedance, one circuit (with earth return) but without ground wires, is expressed as

Zm

Zm(aa') - Zm(a) ohms/mile Zo(1)

(8)

where
ra +jxa - phase-conductor impedance

Conclusions
Experience from calculating the transmission-line impedances leads to the followimg conclusions:
1. More accurate results are obtained by use of the computer than would be possible by manual calculations.

ohms/phase/mile (2) xd = (0.2794)(1/3) log (dabdbcdca)

Mutual zero-sequence impedance between two circuits (with earth return) but without ground wires is expressed as

Zo(a) = ra +ro +j(xs +Xa -2xd)

re,+jx. =equivalent earth impedance

+jxg-=overhead-ground-wire impedance'

References
1. COMPLETE FLOATINo-DECIMAL INTERPRNTIVD SYSTEM POt TNB IBM 650 MAGNBTIC DRum CALCULATOR. Techxical Newsletter no. 11, International Business Machines Corporation, New York, N. Y. 2. IBM 650 MAGNsTIc DRum DATA PaoOCEssNo MACHNE-MANUAL OP OPERATION. Ibid., 1955. 3. TaANssnssoN AND DIsTRIBUION REFERBNCE BooK. Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Eat Pittsburgh, Pa., 1950, pp. 32-55. 4. SymmETRICAL COMPONENTS (book), C. F. Wagner, R. D. Evam. McGraw-Hl Book Company, Inc., New York, N. Y., 1933, pp. 136-97. 5. BETHLBREM STBEL STAND DATA (booklet). Bethlehem Steel Company, Bethlehem, Pa., 1945, p. 8.

Zm(aa') re +j(x. -3xd) ohms/phase/mile Xd =(0.2794)(1/9) log

-

2. The time requirement of engineering personnel to calculate transmission-line impedances by computer is far less than by manual methods. A conservative estimate of the time requirement of one engineer for manual calculations is about 35 weeks as against completing calculations on the computer in about 8 hours and about 3 weeks

(daa'dab'dac'dbaado'db,cdca'dcb'dCcc) (3)

Zero-sequence self-impedance, one ground wire (with earth return), is expressed as

Z(g) =3rg+re+j(xe-3x9)

ohms/phase/mile (4)

Zero-sequence self-impedance, two ground wires (with earth return), is expressed as

9

Discussion
Norton Savage (The Detroit Edison ComDetroit, Mich.): This paper describes a typical application of the medium-size digital computer to engineering problems. Its conclusions regarding improved accuracy and decreased cost obtainable by substituting machine methods for manual computation are of general application and impany,

The paper is of especial interest to the writer because he is presently engaged in the task of preparing a program similar to the one described, for use on a similar machine (IBM 650). A question regarding the zero-sequence computation may be in order. In the Appendix the formulas shown include a quantity r.+jX. which is defined as equivalent earth impedance. The reactance Xe, as defined in reference 3 of the paper, is a function of the earth resistivity, yet this quantity is not included in the list of "Computer Input Data" given in the paper. May one

portance.

conclude that earth resistivity in the author's service area varies so little that it can be treated as a constant factor? Or has some other provision been made for its inclusion in the computations? In this regard, another program' for computing transmission-line impedances does make provision for including the effect of earth resistivity. The flow diagram presents a clear picture of the major operations in the program, but raises several questions about protective devices. (The discusser believes that programs for computers require built-in protective devices to the same extent that transmission lines and otber electric plant equipment require protective relaying.) Since it is possible to have as many as three cards of input data, has any provision been made in the program for the following conditions: 1. Omission of one or two cards that should be included. 2. Inclusion of one or two cards that do not belong in the group.

It is realized, of course, that various approaches are possible in the computation of transmission-line impedances. This paper shows one approach, in which impedances are computed for a portion of line in which the conductor and ground-wire configuration and constants do not change. Another approach, which is being followed at The Detroit Edison Company, is to compute the impedances for a complete line, regardless of changes in conductor and ground-wire constants, quantity or configuration. Our plan is to have the program compute the desired quantities on a per-mile basis for whatever configuration exists at a particular tower and multiply by distance to the next tower in the line. All quantities are summed up as the computations progress. Consequently, there will be stored on the drum, while impedances at any tower are being computed, the total impedances from the beginning of the line to that tower. The program accepts changes in the conductor and ground-wire configuration, and in the size of conductors and ground wires, as they occur.

1274

Thomas-Calculation of Transmission-Line Impedances

FERBRUARY 1959