CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 What is LHC:-

"Particle physics is the unbelievable in pursuit of the unimaginable. To pinpoint the smallest fragments of the universe you have to build the biggest machine in the world. To recreate the first millionths of a second of creation you have to focus energy on an awesome scale."[1] The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the world's largest and highestenergy particle accelerator .It is a gigantic scientific instrument which lies in a tunnel 27 kilometres in circumference, as much as 175 metres beneath the Franco-Swiss border near Geneva, Switzerland This Synchrotron is used by physicists to study the smallest known particles the fundamental building blocks of all things. It will revolutionise our understanding, from the minuscule world deep within atoms to the vastness of the Universe. The Large Hadron Collider was built by the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) with the intention of testing various predictions of high-energy physics, including the existence of the hypothesized Higgs boson and of the large of new particles predicted by supersymmetry. It is funded by and built in collaboration with over 10,000 scientists and engineers from over 100 countries as well as hundreds of universities and laboratories. Two beams of subatomic particles called 'hadrons' either protons or lead ions will travel in opposite directions inside the circular accelerator, gaining energy with every lap. Physicists will use the LHC to recreate the conditions just after the Big Bang, by colliding the two beams head-on at very high energy. People sometimes refer to recreating the Big Bang, but this is misleading. Whatthey actually mean is: recreating the conditions and energies that existed shortly after the start of the Big Bang, not the moment at which the Big Bang started recreating conditions on a microscale, not on the same scale as the original Big Bang recreating energies that are continually being produced naturally (by high energy cosmic rays hitting the earths atmosphere) but at will and inside sophisticated detectors that track what is happening No Big Bang so no possibility of creating a new Universe.

On 10 September 2008, the proton beams were successfully circulated in the main ring of the LHC for the first time,but nine days later, operations were halted due to a serious fault between two superconducting bending magnets. Repairing the resulting damage and installing additional safety features took over a year. On 20 November 2009, the proton beams were successfully circulated again, with the first protonproton collisions being recorded three days later at the injection energy of 450 GeV per beam. The LHC became the world's highest-energy particle accelerator on 30 November 2009, achieving a world record 1.18 TeV per beam and surpassing the record previously held by the Tevatron at Fermilab in Batavia, Illinois. After the 2009 winter shutdown, the LHC was restarted and the beam was ramped up to 3.5 TeV per beam, half its designed energy, which is planned for after its 2012 shutdown. On 30 March 2010, the first planned collisions took place between two 3.5 TeV beams, which set a new world record for the highest-energy man-made particle collisions.[2]

Figure No: 1.1 (Large hadron collider internal view)

1.2. HISTORY:During the first half of this century, achievements in Europe dominated progress in the physics, from the discovery of the electron to the atomic nucleus and its constituents, from special relativity to quantum mechanics. Sadly, the conflicts of the 1930s and 40s interrupted this as many scientists had to leave for calmer shores. The return of peace heralded some decisive changes. By the early 50s, the Americans had understood that further progress needed more sophisticated instruments, and that investment in basic science could drive economic and technological development. While scientists in Europe still relied on simple equipment based on radioactivity and cosmic rays, powerful accelerators were being built in the US. Table-top experiments were being overtaken by projects involving large teams of scientists and engineers. A few far-sighted physicists, such as Rabi, Amaldi, Auger and de Rougemont, perceived that co-operation was the only way forward for front-line research in Europe. Despite fine intellectual traditions and prestigious universities, no European country could cope alone. The creation of a European Laboratory was recommended at a UNESCO meeting in Florence in 1950, and less than three years later a Convention was signed by 12 countries of the Conseil Europen pour la Recherche Nuclaire. CERN was born, the prototype of a chain of European institutions in space, astronomy and molecular biology, and Europe was poised to regain its illustrious place on the scientific map.[3]

CHAPTER 2 WHY THE LHC

2.1 A few unanswered questions:The LHC was built to help scientists to answer key unresolved questions in particle physics. The unprecedented energy it achieves may even reveal some unexpected results that no one has ever thought of! For the past few decades, physicists have been able to describe with increasing detail the fundamental particles that make up the Universe and the interactions between them. This understanding is encapsulated in the Standard Model of particle physics, but it contains gaps and cannot tell us the whole story. To fill in the missing knowledge requires experimental data, and the next big step to achieving this is with LHC. 2.2 What is mass? What is the origin of mass? Why do tiny particles weigh the amount they do? Why do some particles have no mass at all? At present, there are no established answers to these questions. The most likely explanation may be found in the Higgs boson, a key undiscovered particle that is essential for the Standard Model to work. First hypothesised in 1964, it has yet to be observed. 2.3 What is 96% of the universe made of? Everything we see in the Universe, from an ant to a galaxy, is made up of ordinary particles. These are collectively referred to as matter, forming 4%of the Universe. Dark matter and dark energy are believed to make up the remaining proportion, but they are incredibly difficult to detect and study, other than through the gravitational forces they exert. Investigating the nature of dark matter and dark energy is one of the biggest challenges today in the fields of particle physics and cosmology. 2.4 Why is there no more antimatter? We live in a world of matter everything in the Universe, including ourselves, is made of matter. Antimatter is like a twin version of matter, but with opposite electric charge. At the birth of the Universe, equal amounts of matter and antimatter should have been produced in the Big Bang. But when matter and antimatter particles meet, they annihilate each other, transforming into energy. Somehow, a tiny fraction of matter must have survived to form the Universe we live in today, with hardly any antimatter left. Why does Nature appear to have this bias for matter

over antimatter? The LHCb experiment will be looking for differences between matter and antimatter to help answer this question. Previous experiments have already observed a tiny behavioural difference, but what has been seen so far is not nearly enough to account for the apparent matterantimatter imbalance in the Universe. 2.5 Secrets of the Big Bang :What was matter like within the first second of the Universes life? Matter, from which everything in the Universe is made, is believed to have originated from a dense and hot cocktail of fundamental particles. Today, the ordinary matter of the Universe is made of atoms, which contain a nucleus composed of protons and neutrons, which in turn are made of quarks bound together by other particles called gluons. The bond is very strong, but in the very early Universe conditions would have been too hot and energetic for the gluons to hold the quarks together. Instead, it seems likely that during the first microseconds after the Big Bang the Universe would have contained a very hot and dense mixture of quarks and gluons called quarkgluon plasma.[4]

CHAPTER 3
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UNDERSTANDING SOME BASIC CONCEPTS

3.1 A SIMPLE VIEW OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE:An atom basically consists of three sub atomic particles .These are as following : 1. Protons : These are positively charged particles .They reside inside the nucleus of the atom. They majorly determines the weight of the atom. 2. Electrons : These are negatively charged particles. They are present in the orbits outside the nucleus in the atom. They majorly determines the atomic number . 3. Neutrons :These are neutrally charged particles. They are present in the nucleus of the atom .They mainly helps in maintaining the neutrality of the atom. Now , behavior of electrons ,protons and neutrons in electric field depends upon their speed and their energy. 3.1.1 If the particles have the same energy If beams of the three sorts of particles, all with the same energy, are passed between two electrically charged plates as in fig 2:

Figure No. 2 Protons are deflected on a curved path towards the negative plate. Electrons are deflected on a curved path towards the positive plate.The amount of deflection is exactly the same in the electron beam as the proton beam if the energies are the same - but, of course, it is in the opposite direction. Neutrons continue in a straight line.If the electric field was strong enough, then the electron and proton beams mightcurve enough to hit their respective plates. 3.1.2 If the particles have the same speeds If beams of the three sorts of particles, all with the same speed, are passed between two electrically charged plates as in fig 3: Protons are deflected on a curved path towards the negative plate. Electrons are deflected on a curved path towards the positive plate. If the 6

electrons and protons are travelling with the same speed, then the lighter electrons are deflected far more strongly than the heavier protons. Neutrons continue in a straight line.[5]

Figure 3 3.2 MATTER AND ANTIMATTER:Matter is that which comprises physical objects the things of the world. Typically, atoms, molecules and other particles are included. In common usage, matter often is defined as that which has mass and occupies volume. Matter is commonly said to exist in four states (or phases): solid, liquid, gas and plasma .In physics and chemistry, matter exhibits both wave-like and particle-like properties, the so-called wave particle duality. In the realm of cosmology, extensions of the term matter are invoked to include dark matter and dark energy, concepts introduced to explain some odd phenomena of the observable universe. [6] Antimatter is the extension of the concept of the antiparticle to matter, where antimatter is composed of antiparticles in the same way that normal matter is composed of particles. For example, a positron (also called "antielectron") and an antiproton can form an antihydrogen atom in the same way that an electron and a proton form a normal matter hydrogen atom. Furthermore, mixing matter and antimatter can lead to the annihilation of both in the same way that mixing antiparticles and particles does, thus giving rise to high-energy photons (gamma rays) or other particleantiparticle pairs.[7] 3.3 QUARKS AND HADRONS:A Quark is an elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter. Quarks combine to form composite particles called hadrons, the most stable of which are protons and neutrons, the components of atomic nuclei. There are six types of quarks, known as flavors: up, down, charm, strange, top, and bottom. Up and down quarks have the lowest masses of all quarks. The heavier quarks rapidly change into up and down quarks through a process of particle decay: the transformation from a higher mass state to a lower mass state. Because of this, up and down quarks are generally stable and the most common in the universe, whereas charm, strange, top, and bottom quarks can only be produced 7

in high energy collisions (such as those involving cosmic rays and in particle accelerators). A Hadron is a composite particle made of quarks held together by the strong force (similarly to how atoms and molecules are held together by the electromagnetic force).The best-known hadrons are protons and neutrons , which can be found in the atomic nuclei. All hadrons except protons are unstable and undergo particle decayhowever neutrons are stable when found inside the atomic nuclei.[8] 3.4 STANDARD MODEL:The Standard Model of particle physics is a theory concerning the electromagnetic, weak and strong nuclear interactions which mediate the dynamics of the known subatomic particles. The Standard Model is the theoretical framework describing all the currently known elementary particles, as well as the unobserved Higgs boson. This model contains six flavors of quarks (q), named up(u), down (d), charm (c), strange (s), top (t), and bottom (b). Antiparticles of quarks are called anti quarks, and are denoted by a bar over the symbol for the corresponding quark, such as u for an up antiquary. As with antimatter in general, anti quarks have the same mass, mean lifetime, and spin as their respective quarks, but the electric charge and other charges have the opposite sign.[9] 3.5 THE BIG BANG THEORY:According to the Big Bang model, the Universe expanded from an extremely dense and hot state and continues to expand today. A common analogy explains that space itself is expanding, carrying galaxies with it, like raisins in a rising loaf of bread. The Big Bang is the prevailing cosmological theory of the early development of the universe. Cosmologists use the term Big Bang to refer to the idea that the universe was originally extremely hot and dense at some finite time in the past and has since cooled by expanding to the present diluted state and continues to expand today. 3.6 HIGGS BOSON PARTICLE The Higgs boson is a hypothetical massive scalar elementary particle predicted to exist by the Standard Model in particle physics. The existence of the particle is postulated as a means of resolving inconsistencies in current theoretical physics, and attempts are being made to confirm the existence of the particle by experimentation, using the Large Hadron Collider (LHC). The Higgs boson is the only Standard Model particle that has not been observed and is thought to be the mediator of mass. Experimental detection of the Higgs boson would help 8

explain the origin of mass in the universe .If the Higgs boson exists, it is an integral and pervasive component of the material world. The Higgs boson particle is one quantum component of the theoretical Higgs field. In empty space, the Higgs field has an amplitude different from zero; i.e., a nonzero vacuum expectation value. The existence of this non-zero vacuum expectation plays a fundamental role: it gives mass to every elementary particle that couples to the Higgs field, including the Higgs boson itself. In particular, the acquisition of a nonzero vacuum expectation value spontaneously breaks electroweak gauge symmetry, which scientists often refer to as the Higgs mechanism.

[10]

CHAPTER 4 STRUCTURE AND THE PARTS OF LARGE HADRON COLLIDER

Six detectors have been constructed at the LHC, located underground in large Caverns excavated at the LHC's intersection points.

Figure 4 (Location of LHC)

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4.1 ATLAS :ATLAS (A Toroidal LHC Apparatus) is one of the six particle detector experiments constructed at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), ATLAS is 44 metres long and 25 metres in diameter, weighing about 7,000 tonnes. ATLAS is designed as a general-purpose detector. When the proton beams produced by the Large Hadron Collider interact in the center of the detector, a variety of different particles with a broad range of energies may be produced. Rather than focusing on a particular physical process, ATLAS is designed to measure the broadest possible range of signals. This is intended to ensure that, whatever form any new physical processes or particles might take, ATLAS will be able to detect them and measure their properties. ATLAS is intended to investigate many different types of physics that might become detectable in the energetic collisions of the LHC. Some of these are confirmations or improved measurements of the Standard Model, while many others are searches for new physical theories. One of the most important goals of ATLAS is to investigate a missing piece of the Standard Model, the Higgs boson. The detector generates unmanageably large amounts of raw data, about 25 megabytes per event (raw; zero suppression reduces this to 1.6 MB) times 40 million beam crossings per second in the center of the detector, for a total of 1 petabyte/second of raw data. The trigger system uses simple information to identify, in real time, the most interesting events to retain for detailed analysis. 4.2 CMS :The Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS) experiment is one of two large general-purpose particle physics detectors built on the proton-proton Large Hadron Collider (LHC). CMS is designed as a general-purpose detector, capable of studying many aspects of proton collisions at 14 TeV, the centerof-mass energy of the LHC particle accelerator. It contains subsystems which are designed to measure the energy and momentum of photons, electrons, muons, and other products of the collisions. The innermost layer is a silicon-based tracker. Surrounding it is a scintillating crystal electromagnetic calorimeter, which is itself surrounded with a sampling calorimeter for hadrons. The tracker and the calorimetry are compact enough to fit inside the CMS solenoid which generates a powerful magnetic field of 3.8 T. Outside the magnet are the large muon detectors, which are inside the return yoke of the magnet. The CMS experiment uses a general-purpose detector to investigate a wide range of physics, including the search for the Higgs boson, extra dimensions, and particles that could make up dark matter. Although it has the same scientific goals as the ATLAS experiment, it uses different technical solutions and design of its detector magnet 11

system to achieve these. The CMS detector is built around a huge solenoid magnet. This takes the form of a cylindrical coil of superconducting cable that generates a magnetic field of 4 teslas, about 100 000 times that of the Earth. The magnetic field is confined by a steel 'yoke' that forms the bulk of the detector's weight of 12 500 tonnes. An unusual feature of the CMS detector is that instead of being built in-situ underground, like the other giant detectors of the LHC experiments, it was constructed on the surface, before being lowered underground in 15 sections and reassembled. CMS detector Size: 21 m long, 15 m wide and 15 m high. Weight: 12 500 tonnes Design: barrel plus end caps Location: Cessy, France. 4.3 LHCb :The LHCb (standing for "Large Hadron Collider beauty" where "beauty" refers to the bottom quark) experiment is one of six particle physics detector experiments built on the Large Hadron Collider accelerator at CERN.The LHCb experiment will help us to understand why we live in a Universe that appears to be composed almost entirely of matter, but no antimatter.It specialises in investigating the slight differences between matter and antimatter by studying a type of particle called the 'beauty quark', or 'b quark'. Instead of surrounding the entire collision point with an enclosed detector, the LHCb experiment uses a series of subdetectors to detect mainly forward particles. The first sub-detector is mounted close to the collision point, while the next ones stand one behind the other, over a length of 20 m.An abundance of different types of quark will be created by the LHC before they decay quickly into other forms. To catch the b-quarks, LHCb has developed sophisticated movable tracking detectors close to the path of the beams circling in the LHC. LHCb detector Size: 21m long, 10m high and 13m wide Weight: 5600 tonnes Design: forward spectrometer with planar detectors Location: Ferney-Voltaire, France.

4.4 ALICE : ALICE (A Large Ion Collider Experiment) is one of the six detector experiments being constructed at the Large Hadron Collider. ALICE is optimized to study heavy ion collisions. Pb-Pb nuclei collisions will be studied at a centre of mass energy of 2.76 TeV per nucleon. The 12

resulting temperature and energy density are expected to be large enough to generate a quark-gluon plasma, a state of matter wherein quarks and gluons are deconfined. 4.5 TOTEM:TOTEM (TOTal Elastic and diffractive cross section Measurement)experiment studies forward particles to focus on physics that is not accessible to the general-purpose experiments. Among a range of studies, it will measure, in effect, the size of the proton and also monitor accurately the LHC's luminosity.To do this TOTEM must be able to detect particles produced very close to the LHC beams. It will include detectors housed in specially designed vacuum chambers called 'Roman pots', which are connected to the beam pipes in the LHC. Eight Roman pots will be placed in pairs at four locations near the collision point of the CMS experiment. Although the two experiments are scientifically independent, TOTEM will complement the results obtained by the CMS detector and by the other LHC experiments overall.The TOTEM experiment involves 50 scientists from 10 institutes in 8 countries(2006). TOTEM detector Size: 440 m long, 5 m high and 5 m wide Weight: 20 tonnes Design: Roman pot and GEM detectors and cathode strip chambers Location: Cessy, France (near CMS)

4.6 LHCf : The LHCf (Large Hadron Collider forward) experiment uses forward particles created inside the LHC as a source to simulate cosmic rays in laboratory conditions.Cosmic rays are naturally occurring charged particles from outer space that constantly bombard the Earth's atmosphere. They collide with nuclei in the upper atmosphere, leading to a cascade of particles that reaches ground level.Studying how collisions inside the LHC cause similar cascades of particles will help scientists to interpret and calibrate large-scale cosmic-ray experiments that can cover thousands of kilometres. The LHCf experiment involves 22 scientists from 10 institutes in 4 countries (September 2006). LHCf detector Size: two detectors, each measures 30 cm long, 80 cm high, 10 cm wide Weight: 40 kg each Design: Location: Meyrin, Switzerland (near ATLAS) 13

 Linear Particle Accelerator: [11]

CHAPTER 5 DIFFERENT TYPES OF ACCELERATORS

A linear particle accelerator (often shortened to linac) is a type of particle accelerator that greatly increases the velocity of charged subatomic particles or ions by subjecting the charged particles to a series of oscillating electric potentials along a linear beamline. Linacs have many applications, from the generation of X-rays for medicinal purposes, to being an injector for a higher-energy accelerators,to the investigation of the properties of subatomic particles. The design of a linac depends on the type of particle that is being accelerated: electrons, protons or ions. Linacs of appropriate design are capable of accelerating heavy ions to energies exceeding those available in ring-type accelerators, which are limited by the strength of the magnetic fields required to maintain the ions on a curved path. High power linacs are also being developed for production of electrons at relativistic speeds, required since fast electrons traveling in an arc will lose energy through synchrotron radiation; this limits the maximum power that can be imparted to electrons in a synchrotron of given size. Linacs are also capable of prodigious output, producing a nearly continuous stream of particles, whereas a synchrotron will only periodically raise the particles to sufficient energy to merit a "shot" at the target. (The burst can be held or stored in the ring at energy to give the experimental electronics time to work, but the average output current is still limited.) The high density of the output makes the linac particularly attractive for use in loading storage ring facilities with particles in preparation for particle to particle collisions. The high mass output also makes the device practical for the production of antimatter particles, which are generally difficult to obtain, being only a small fraction of a target's collision products. These may then be stored and further used to study matter-antimatter annihilation.[14] 5.1 Proton Synchrotron Booster:The Proton Synchrotron Booster, a synchrotron, is the first and smallest circular proton accelerator in the accelerator chain at the CERN Large Hadron Collider injection complex. The accelerator was built in 1972,

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and contains four superimposed rings with a radius of 25 meters. It takes protons with an energy of 50 MeV from the linear accelerator Linac2 and accelerates them up to 1.4 GeV, ready to be injected into the Proton Synchrotron. It can also take ions from the Linac3 preaccelerated in the LEIR. The PS Booster actually consists of four identical rings mounted one above the other.

5.1.1 Proton Synchrotron: The Proton Synchrotron (PS) is the first major particle accelerator at CERN, built as a 28 GeV proton accelerator in the late 1950s and put into operation in 1959. It takes the protons from the Proton Synchrotron Booster at a kinetic energy of 1.4 GeV and lead ions from the Low Energy Ion Ring (LEIR) at 72 MeV per nucleon. It has been operated as an injector for the Intersecting Storage Rings (ISR), the Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) and the Large Electron-Positron Collider (LEP).Starting in November 2009, the PS machine delivers protons and will provide lead ion beams for the Large Hadron Collider (LHC).It has also been used as a particle source for other experiments, such as the Gargamelle bubble chamber for which it supplied a neutrino beam. This led to the discovery of the weak neutral current in 1974. The PS machine is a circular accelerator with a circumference of 628.3 m. It is a versatile machine having accelerated protons, antiprotons, electrons, positrons and species of ions. Major upgrades have improved its performance by more than a factor of 1000 since 1959. The only main components remaining from its original installation some 50 years ago are the bending magnets and thebuildings. Super Proton Synchrotron: The Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) is a 6.9 km long particle accelerator at CERN. The SPS has been used to accelerate protons and antiprotons, electrons and positrons (for use as the injector for the Large Electron Positron Collider (LEP), and heavy ions.The SPS is now used as the final injector for high-intensity proton beams for the Large Hadron Collider,accelerating protons from 26 GeV to 450 GeV. 5.1.2 SPS upgrade:The Super-SPS It has been proposed that the Large Hadron Collider will require an upgrade to considerably increase its luminosity by 2015. This would require upgrades to the entire linac/pre-injector/injector chain, including the SPS. The improvements to the SPS would most likely focus on increasing the extraction energy of the Super-SPS up to 1 TeV.[11]

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CHAPTER 6 WORKING OF LARGE HADRON COLLIDER

The LHC, the worlds largest and most powerful particle accelerator, is the latest addition to CERNs accelerator complex. It mainly consists of a 27 km ring of superconducting magnets with a number of accelerating structures to boost the energy of the particles along the way. 6.1 Working of LHC :Inside the accelerator, two beams of particles travel at close to the speed of light with very high energies before colliding with one another. The beams travel in opposite directions in separate beam pipes two tubes kept at ultrahigh vacuum. They are guided around the accelerator ring by a strong magnetic field, achieved using superconducting electromagnets. These are built from coils of special electric cable that operates in a superconducting state, efficiently conducting electricity without resistance or loss of energy. This requires chilling the magnets to about -271C a temperature colder than outer space! For this reason, much of the accelerator is connected to a distribution system of liquid helium, which cools the magnets, as well as to other supply services. Thousands of magnets of different varieties and sizes are used to direct the beams around the accelerator. These include 1232 dipole magnets of 15 m length which are used to bend the beams, and 392 quadrupole magnets, each 57 m long, to focus the beams. Just prior to collision, another type of magnet is used to 'squeeze' the particles closer together to increase the chances of collisions. The particles are so tiny that the task of making them collide is akin to firing needles from two positions 10 km apart with such precision that they meet halfway! Once or twice a day, as the protons are accelerated from 450 GeV to 7 TeV, the field of the superconducting dipole magnets will be increased from 0.54 to 8.3 teslas (T). The protons will each have an energy of 7 TeV, giving a total collision energy of 14 TeV. It will take less than 90 microseconds (s) for a proton to travel once around the main ring a speed of about 11,000 revolutions per second. Rather than continuous beams, the protons will be bunched together, into 2,808 bunches, so

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that interactions between the two beams will take place at discrete intervals never shorter than 25 nanoseconds (ns) apart. All the controls for the accelerator, its services and technical infrastructure are housed under one roof at the CERN Control Centre. From here, the beams inside the LHC will be made to collide at four locations around the accelerator ring, corresponding to the positions of the particle detectors.[11]

CHAPTER 7 THE WORLD WIDE LHC COMPUTING GRID

The Large Hadron Collider will produce roughly 15 petabytes (15 million gigabytes) of data annually enough to fill more than 1.7 million duallayer DVDs a year! Thousands of scientists around the world want to access and analyse this data, so CERN is collaborating with institutions in 34 different countries to operate a distributed computing and data storage infrastructure: the Worldwide LHC Computing Grid (WLCG). Data from the LHC experiments is distributed around the globe, with a primary backup recorded on tape at CERN. After initial processing, this data is distributed to eleven large computer centres in Canada, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, the Nordic countries, Spain, Taipei, the UK, and two sites in the USA. with sufficient storage capacity for a large fraction of the data, and with roundthe-clock support for the computing grid. These so-called Tier-1 centres make the data available to over 160 Tier-2 centres for specific analysis tasks. Individual scientists can then access the LHC data from their home country, using local computer clusters or even individual PCs. The WLCG collaborates closely with the other CERN grid projects: The Worldwide LHC Computing Grid has been the driving force behind the European multi-science grid Enabling Grids for E-SciencE (EGEE), which continues to grow in size and diversity of usage. EGEE currently involves more than 240 institutions in 45 countries, supporting science in more than 20 disciplines, including bioinformatics, medical imaging, education, climate change, energy, agriculture and more. CERN openlab: The WLCG project also works with industry, in particular through the CERN openlab, where leading IT companies are testing and validating cutting-edge grid technologies using the WLCG environment.[13]

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Figure 5 (wLCG)

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CHAPTER 8 FACTS AND FIGURE OF LHC

8.1 The largest machine in the world:The precise circumference of the LHC accelerator is 26 659 m, with a total of 9300 magnets inside. Not only is the LHC the worlds largest particle accelerator, just one-eighth of its cryogenic distribution system would qualify as the worlds largest fridge. All the magnets will be precooled to -193.2C (80 K) using 10 080 tonnes of liquid nitrogen, before they are filled with nearly 60 tonnes of liquid helium to bring them down to -271.3C (1.9 K). 8.2 The fastest racetrack on the planet :At full power, trillions of protons will race around the LHC accelerator ring 11 245 times a second, travelling at 99.99% the speed of light. Two beams of protons will each travel at a maximum energy of 7 TeV (teraelectronvolt), corresponding to head-to-head collisions of 14 TeV. Altogether some 600 million collisions will take place every second. 8.3 The biggest and most sophisticated detectors ever built:To sample and record the results of up to 600 million proton collisions per second, physicists and engineers have built gargantuan devices that measure particles with micron precision. The LHC's detectors have sophisticated electronic trigger systems that precisely measure the passage time of a particle to accuracies in the region of a few billionths of a second. The trigger system also registers the location of the particles to millionths of a metre. This incredibly quick and precise response is essential for ensuring that the particle recorded in successive layers of a detector is one and the same. 8.4 The most powerful supercomputer system in the world :The data recorded by each of the big experiments at the LHC will fill around 100 000 dual layer DVDs every year. To allow the thousands of scientists scattered around the globe to collaborate on the analysis over the next 15 years (the estimated lifetime of the LHC), tens of thousands of computers located around the world are being harnessed in a distributed computing network called the Grid.[12]

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REFRENCES
[1] The Guardian http://lhc-machine-outreach.web.cern.ch/lhc-machine-outreach/ [2] CERN-How the LHC Works http://public.web.cern.ch/public/en/LHC/HowLHC-en.html [3]CERN,History of LHC 14 JAN 99 http://lhc.web.cern.ch/lhc/general/history.htm [4]CERN-Why the LHC http://public.web.cern.ch/public/en/LHC/WhyLHC-en.html [5] A simple view of a atomic structure , Jim Clark 2000 ,July 2010 http://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/properties/gcse.html [6] Matter,Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matter [7] Antimatter,Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimatter [10] http://www.fgcsic.es/lychnos/en_EN/articles/the_higgs_boson [11] The LHC: illuminating the high-energy frontier, CERN Courier May 1, 2007 [11] CERN ,THE LHC EXPERIMENT http://public.web.cern.ch/public/en/LHC/LHCExperiments-en.html [12] LHC : Facts & Figures .Retrieved 20-09-08 [13]Worlwide LHC Computing Grid http://public.web.cern.ch/public/en/LHC/Computing-en.html [14]The accelerator complex, CERN (2007) http://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/29893

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