PREFACE

I am pleased to present the project report

Gold Jewellery

before my

respected readers. It is a humble attempt from my part to judge consumer behavior for the effectiveness of existing and self designed adcopy of Spices. This study deals with a number of topics, which will help the reader understand and learn how consumers make consumption decisions regarding Spices. Language of the report is simple and lucid. Attempts have been made to arrange the subject matter in a systematic and well-knit style. Efforts have also been made to deal with all topics precisely and gently. I express thanks to all those prolific teachers and experts of management whose theories and ideas have been incorporated in this project report. Despite of this it is very difficult to be perfect to the core and mistakes do creep in for which I extend my apology and carve the hospitality of the readers to point them out. Their criticism and suggestions for the improvement in future are welcomed.

VANDNA PATHAK
B.COM VTH SEM

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Preparing a project of this nature is an arduous task and I was fortunate enough to get support from a large number of persons. Iwish to express my deep sense of gratitude to all those who generously helped in successful completion of this report by sharing their invaluable time and knowledge. It is my proud and previledge to express my deep regards to Respected Mrs. Anjali Namdeo Thakur FeranSingh Art and Commerce Collage Shahpur for allowing me to undertake this project. I feel extremely exhilarated to have completed this project under the able and inspiring guidance of Mrs. Anjali Namdeo He rendered me all possible help and guidence while reviewing the manuscript in finalising the report. I also extend my deep regards to my teachers, family members, friends and all those whose encouragement has infused courage in me to complete the work successfully.

VANDANA PATHAK B.COM VTH SEM.

CERTIFICATE
Date:

The project report titled GOLD JEWELLARY has been prepared by Miss. VANDANA PATHAK, IInd Batch, under the guidance and supervision of MRS. ANJALI NAMDEO, for the partial fulfillment of the degree of B.COM VTH SEM.

Signature of the Supervisor:

Signature of Head of the Department:

Signature of the examiner

DECLARATION BY THE CANDIDATE

Date: I declare that the project report titled GOLD JEWELLARY is my own work conducted under the supervision of MRS. ANJALI NAMDEO Department Of COMMERCE, To the best of my knowledge the report does not contain any work, which has been submitted for the award of any degree, anywhere.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

 Preface Acknowledgement Certificate Declaration by the Candidate 1. Introduction 2. Line of Objectives 3. Research methodology 4. Data analysis and interpretation 5. Self designed advertisement Product profile Script for advertisement Advertisement of existing brand 6. Findings 7. Conclusion 8. Suggestions 9. Limitations Bibliography Appendix

Format of Questionnaire

INTRODUCTION
The name diamond is derived from the ancient Greek (admas), "proper", "unalterable", "unbreakable", "untamed", from - (a-), "un-" + (dam), "I overpower", "I tame". Diamonds are thought to have been first recognized and mined in India, where significant alluvial deposits of the stone could be found many centuries ago along the rivers Penner, Krishna and Godavari. Diamonds have been known in India for at least 3,000 years but most likely 6,000 years.

Diamonds have been treasured as gemstones since their use as religious icons in ancient India. Their usage in engraving tools also dates to early human history. The popularity of diamonds has risen since the 19th century because of increased supply, improved cutting and polishing techniques, growth in the world economy, and innovative and successful advertising campaigns.[7] In 1772, Antoine Lavoisier used a lens to concentrate the rays of the sun on a diamond in an atmosphere of oxygen, and showed that the only product of the combustion was carbon dioxide, proving that diamond is composed of carbon. Later in 1797, Smithson Tennant repeated and expanded that experiment. By demonstrating that burning diamond and graphite releases the same amount of gas he established the chemical equivalence of these substances. The most familiar use of diamonds today is as gemstones used for adornment, a use which dates back into antiquity. The dispersion of white light into spectral colors is the primary gemological characteristic of gem diamonds. In the 20th century, experts in gemology have developed methods of grading diamonds and other gemstones based on the characteristics most important to their value as a gem. Four characteristics, known informally as the four Cs, are now commonly used as the
[9]

basic

descriptors

of

diamonds:

these

are carat, cut, color, and clarity. A large, flawless diamond is known as a paragon.

TANISHQ Tanishq

Type

Subsidiary

of Titan

IndustriesLtd Industry Founded Jewellers 1995

Headquarters Hosur, Tamil Nadu Website Tanishq official website

Tanishq (Hindi: ) is a prominent jewellery brand of India. It pioneered the concept of branded jewellery and ornaments in India. It is a division of Titan Industries Limited, a company promoted by the Tata Group, one of India's largest conglomerates. The name Tanishq contains the word "Nishk" (meaning gold coin or necklace in Sanskrit), although the k has been modified into a q.[1] "Tan" in Sanskrit/Urdu means body and "Ishq" in Urdu means love. Hence "Tanishq" which is becoming popular as an Indian baby name means "embodiment of love". "Tan" in Sanskrit also means to extend or to spread. Hence "to extend love" or "to spread love" are other meanings attributed to the name Tanishq. Overview Tanishq has an exquisite range of gold, gems and diamonds jewellery. It is the largest and fastest growing jewellery brand in India.[citation prevalent in India. Tanishq has set up production and sourcing bases with thorough research of the jewellery crafts of India. The Tanishq factory located at Hosur, Tamil Nadu (India) spreads over 135,000 sq ft (12,500 m2) and complies with all labor and environmental standards. Tanishq spread awareness to the public about alleged impurity in Gold jewellery across India. Tanishq introduced innovations like Karatmeter, the
needed]

Tanishq

started in 1995 and challenged the established family jeweller system

only non-destructive means to check the purity of gold and machine made jewellery.

Nakshatra diamond Jewellery Nakshatra Jewellery

Industry Founded

Gems & Jewellery 2000

Headquarters Available at multiple retail outlets across the country. Products All types of diamond

jewellery necklace etc. The

including sets,

rings,

earrings,

pendants, bangles, bracelets

jewellery

is

crafted

around an unique set of diamond star flowers that signify constellations. Each design is a stylized interpretation of the kodajodi, which is traditionally believed to shower the wearer with blessings and divine luck. Parent Website Gitanjali Group Nakshatra Diamonds

Nakshatra Diamond Jewellery is one of the most respected and most preferred jewellery brands in India. Originally launched in 2000 by the Diamond Trading Company (DTC), with the dazzling Aishwarya Rai as its brand ambassador, it was acquired by Gitanjali Group in 2008. Subsequently the then reigning queen of Bolllywood, Katrina Kaif was chosen as the face of the brand. Today, Nakshatra is one of Indias largest and most well known jewellery brands. The jewellery is crafted around an unique set of diamond star flowers that signify constellations. Each design is a stylized interpretation of the kodajodi, which is traditionally believed to shower the wearer with blessings and divine luck.

ADVERTISEMENT CONCEPT
Advertising is multidimensional. It is a form of mass

communication, a powerful marketing tool, a component of economic system, a means of financing the mass media, a social institution, an art form, an instrument of business management, a field of employment and a profession. Advertisement has both forward & backward linkages in the process of satisfaction across the entire spectrum of needs. The explicit function of advertisement is to make the potential audience aware of the existence of the product, service or idea which would help them fulfill their felt needs and spell out the differential benefits in a competitive situation. Advertising is not a panacea that can restore a poor product or rejuvenate a declining market. It only helps in selling through the art and business of persuasive communication. WHY ADVERTISEMENT IS NEEDED?

 Advertising is a communication channel which enables consumers in making choice from the best available alternative in the market, thus satisfying the basic aim of advertisement. Advertisement programme. Advertisement makes it possible for the manufacture to introduce new ideas & new products. Advertisement makes product adoption process smooth. Advertisement expands markets, builds up volume, gives a market share and profitability and reduces prices. IMPORTANCE OF ADVERTISEMENT PLANNING Some basic elements of advertisement planning are: Advertisement Budget Media Planning Creative Strategy Advertisement Effective ADVERTISEMENT EVALUATION Pre-testing & Post-testing method The testing can be related to the ad copy in terms of its message, idea, theme, slogan & contents or also can be related to products in which impact of message on product awareness or buying intention is measures. Measures can be broadly classified into two categories: Laboratory measures Real- world measures is mass audience communication

The following are the laboratory measures of pre-testing which are ads related: 1. Consumer jury 2. Portfolio tests 3. Readability tests 4. Physiological measures 5. Eye-camera 6. Tachistocope 7. GSR/PDR The following are the laboratory measures of pre-testing which are products related : 1. Theatre tests 2. Trailer tests 3. Laboratory stores The following are the real-world measures of pre-testing which are ads related : 1. 2. 3. The following Dummy advertising vehicles Inquiry tests On the air tests are the real-world measures of post-testing

which are ads related : 1. Recognition tests 2. Recall tests 3. Association measures 4. Combination measures The following are the real-world measures of pre-testing as well as post-testing which are products related : 1. Pre-post tests 2. Sales tests 3. Mini-market tests

ADVERTISEMENT STRATEGY
Strategy is a link between advertisement objectives &

advertisement plan. Strategy also makes it easier to implement the plans & goals. There are seven possible strategies from which ideas have been taken. These are pioneering a product, Emphasize a benefit, Put across the USP of a brand, Build a brand image, Offer a range of products, Future users of the products, Discover new uses for an existing product. In my advertisement I have tried to use the strategies of emphasizing a benefit i.e. giving the product at lower price than others with additional new flavors. Also the following market considerations are taken into account as they affect the strategy formulation: Positioning of the product: The Zest Spices are positioned at middle-income group of customers and even the rural customers. Promotion mix: As a marketer we are interested in the right mix or combination of Advertising, The Publicity, Personal selling (especially in villages) & Sales promotion. Advertisement media: most preferred advertisement media for Zest Spices is Television; also the print media (newspapers & magazines) is used in some areas. Advertisement budget: The total amount to be spent on the advertisement of Zest Spices will be decided on the basis of Advertisement Objective & Task Method. This is so chosen because the competition is so much that you cannot think of profit first and then generate revenue for advertisement, but if the

product is communicated very well than it automatically sell and generate revenue too. Vital decision about the size of space (for print media) or length of time (for broadcast media) for the ads have yet to be made, which will be based on the rational price, proper space, and which gives advantage of time utility.

Objectives of research
1. To gain insight into the customer preferences regarding spices. 2. To search the motives that stimulates consumers to purchase spices. 3. To find out the awareness level of customers regarding advertisement.

4. To compare two different brand advertisements of the similar media. 5. To find which is the most popular brand advertisement. 6. To know about effective advertising media that persuades the customers most. 7. To design advertisement copy for spices. 8. To pre-test and post-test the effectiveness of existing and designed advertisement copy.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
WHAT IS RESEARCH METHODOLOGY? It is the science that tells the method of doing research .It mainly consists of following steps; Developing research design Determining the data collection method Developing sampling plan Conducting field work Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. One can also define research as a scientific and

systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. The word research has been derived from French word Researcher means to search. DEFINITION OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: Research may be defined as "a careful investigation or enquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge "in a technical sense research comprise defining &redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting ,organizing &evaluating data; making deductions & reaching conclusion & at last carefully testing the conclusion to determine weather they fit the formulating hypothesis. RESEARCH DESIGN: Research Design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted. It constitutes the blueprint for collection, measurement and analysis of data. The design used for carrying out this research is Descriptive.

RESEARCH DESIGN USED IN THE SURVEY:

Considering the objectives of the study and also the importance of the decision it was decided to undertake an exploratory survey. DATA COLLECTION: Types of data: 1. Primary data- primary data are those which are fresh and collected for the first time and thus happen to be original characters. 2. Secondary data - It is the data that is already been collected by

someone else. In this survey I used both primary and secondary data. All information collected through questionnaire.

DATA SOURCE: The sources of collection of secondary data are: Questionnaire Books Websites Magazine Brochure SAMPLING PLAN: It is very difficult to collect information from every member of a population .As time and costs are the major limitation that the researcher faces. A sample of 30 was taken the sample size of 30 individuals were selected on the basis of convenient sampling technique. The individuals were selected in the random manner to form sample and data were collected from them for the research study. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION: Data collection through questionnaire and personnel interview resulted in availability of the desired information but these were useless until there were analyzed. Various steps required for this purpose were editing, coding and tabulating. Tabulating refers to bringing together similar data and compiling them in an accurate

and meaningful manner. The data collected by questionnaire was analyzed, interpreted with the help of table, bar chart and pie chart.

DATA ANALYSIS & INTERPRETATION

Q.1 Do you have diamond Jewellery Answer Yes No. Percentage 20% 30%

20% Yes No. 30%

Q.2 Which company Diamond Jewellary do you use Answer Tanisha DDamas Asmi Nakshatra Percentage 15% 10% 5% 20%

20%

15%

5%

10%

Tanisha DDamas Asmi Nakshatra

Q.3 Do you like the advertisement designed by me Answer Yes No. Percentage 45% 5%

5%

Yes No.

45%

Q.4 Which media according to you is best for product advertisment ?

Answer Audio Vedio Audio Video Print

Percentage 5% 10% 30% 5%

5%

5%

10%

Audio Vedio Audio Video Print

30%

Q.5

Do you think promotional events are necessary for a Percentage 30% 20%

product promotion Answer Yes No.

20% Yes No. 30%

Q.6 Do you like the script of advertisement designed by me Answer Yes No. Percentage 35% 15%

15% Yes No.

35%

Q.7

Do you likethe slogan or punchline of my product Percentage 32% 18%

18% company
Answer Yes No.

Yes No. 32%

CONCLUSIONS I had some limited success in teaching jewelry making classes. The biggest problem was getting the word out. The place I found to teach the classes did not offer any help in promoting them. However, when I did get enough students to take a class, I found it was not only enjoyable for the students and myself, but by bringing extra kits, beads, and findings to class, Im also was able to make a nice little profit.

If had I spent more time promoting myself, then I believe I would have been even more successful. I taught at a local community center, but you could also teach for groups such as home schoolers, scout groups, or 4-H clubs. Deciding on the where, what, how, and who will depend on your schedule, expertise, and taste. You may have to try a few methods before you find a teaching process that works best for you, but hopefully, you now have a few basic ideas to help you create a jewelry class curriculum.

SUGGESTIONS There are four questions that you can use as a great starting point when choosing your diamond engagement ring. If you answer each of these four questions, you will take a big step forward towards finding the right diamond engagement ring for you.

Do you prefer round (brilliant cut), square (princess cut), rectangular (emerald cut) , marquise or heart shaped diamonds in diamond engagement rings?

Do you prefer prong or bezel set diamond engagement rings? Would you prefer one diamond, one main diamond with smaller diamonds or multiple diamonds of similar proportions in diamond engagement rings?

Do you prefer yellow gold, white gold or platinum diamond engagement rings?

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C. Even-Zohar (2007). From Mine to Mistress: Corporate Strategies

and Government Policies in the International Diamond Industry (2nd ed.). Mining Journal Press.

G.

Davies

(1994). Properties

and

growth

of

diamond.

INSPEC. ISBN 0-85296-875-2.

M. O'Donoghue, M (2006). Gems. Elsevier. ISBN 0-7506-5856-8. M. O'Donoghue and L. Joyner (2003). Identification of gemstones.

Great Britain: Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-7506-5512-7.

A. Feldman and L.H. Robins (1991). Applications of Diamond Films

and Related Materials. Elsevier.

J.E. Field (1979). The Properties of Diamond. London: Academic

Press. ISBN 0-12-255350-0.

QUESTIONNAIRE
Name of Purchaser Respondent Name Age : : _____________________________ _____________________________

_____________________________

Q.1 Q.2 Q.3 Q.4 Q.5 Q.6 Q.7 Q.8 Q.9 Ans Q.10

Do you have diamond Jewellery? (a) Yes (b) No Which company Diamond Jewellery do you use ? (a) Tanisha (b) DDamas (c) Asmi (d) Nakshatra do you like the advertisement designed by me (a) Yes (b) No Which Media according to you is best for product advertisement? (a) Audio (b) Video (c) Audio video (d) Print do you think promotional events are necessary for a product promotion? (a) Yes (b) No do you like the script of advertisement designed by me ? (a) Yes (b) No do you like the slogan or punchline of my product company? (a) Yes (b) No. Which feature do you think every diamond Jewellery should have ? (a) (b) (c) (d) Which company according to your is the best ? __________________________________________________________________________ Any Suggestion : _____________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ Thank you very much for your kind cooperation. Place : Date Signature of Respondent

INTRODUTION TO THE PRODUCT

In mineralogy, diamond (from the ancient Greek admas "unbreakable") is anallotrope of carbon, where the carbon atoms are arranged in a variation of the face-centered cubic crystal structure called a diamond lattice. Diamond is less stable than graphite, but the conversion rate from diamond to graphite is negligible at ambient conditions. Diamond is renowned as a material with superlative physical qualities, most of which originate from the

strong covalent bonding between its atoms. In particular, diamond has the highest hardnessand thermal conductivity of any bulk material. Those properties determine the major industrial application of diamond in cutting and polishing tools. Diamond has remarkable optical characteristics. Because of its extremely rigid lattice, it can be contaminated by very few types of impurities, such as boron and nitrogen. Combined with wide transparency, this results in the clear, colorless appearance of most natural diamonds. Small amounts of defects or impurities (about one per million of lattice atoms) color diamond blue (boron), yellow (nitrogen), brown (lattice defects), green (radiation exposure), purple, pink, orange or red. Diamond also has relatively high optical dispersion (ability to disperse light of different colors), which results in its characteristic luster. Excellent optical and mechanical properties, combined with efficient marketing, make diamond the most popular gemstone. Most natural diamonds are formed at high-pressure high-temperature conditions existing at depths of 140 to 190 kilometers (87 to 120 mi) in the Earth mantle. Carbon-containing minerals provide the carbon source, and the growth occurs over periods from 1 billion to 3.3 billion years (25% to 75% of the age of the Earth). Diamonds are brought close to the Earth surface through deep volcanic eruptions by a magma, which cools into igneous rocks known as kimberlitesand lamproites. Diamonds can also be produced synthetically in a high-pressure high-temperature process which approximately simulates the conditions in the Earth mantle. An alternative, and completely different growth technique is chemical vapor deposition (CVD). Several non-diamond materials, which include cubic zirconia and silicon carbide and are often called diamond simulants, resemble diamond in appearance and many properties. Specialgemological techniques have been developed to distinguish natural and synthetic diamondsand diamond simulants.

Script
Scene 1 Scene 2 There is Husband and wife and they have their anniversary can that day Husband shows that he didnt remember their anniversary but the known every thing and decided that he will organize a surprise party for her wife named Devika. Scene 3 Scene 4 Wife was very sad and upset that his husband dont remeber their anniversary. Finally he invited her on the terrace of their house and gifted her Diva Diamond Jewellary Set We She was very happy and hugged him and said DD Make Relations farevess

DIVA DIAMOND JEWELERY

MAKE FOREVER

RELATION

Appendix

Diamond Jewellery

Diamond ring

Amber pendants

Contemporary jewellery design.

The Queen Farida of Egypt red coral parure by Ascione manufacture, 1938, Neaples, Coral Jewellery Museum Jewellery or jewelry[1] is a form of personal adornment - such as brooches,rings, necklaces, earrings, and bracelets. With some exception such as medical alert bracelets or military dog tags, jewellery normally differs from other items of personal adornment in that it has no other purpose than to look appealing, but humans have been producing and wearing it for a long time - with 100,000-year-old beads made from Nassarius shells thought to be the oldest known jewellery. Jewellery may be made from a wide range of materials, but gemstones, precious metals, beads and shells have been widely used. Depending on the culture and times jewellery may be appreciated as a status symbol, for its material properties, its patterns, or for meaningful symbols. Jewellery has been made to adorn nearly every body part, from hairpins to toe rings. The word jewellery itself is derived from the word jewel, which was anglicized from the Old French"jouel",[3] and beyond that, to the Latin word "jocale", meaning plaything. Form and function

Kenyan man wearing tribal beads Jewellery has been used for a number of reasons:

Currency, wealth display and storage, Functional use (such as clasps, pins and buckles) Symbolism (to show membership or status) Protection (in the form of amulets and magical wards),[4] Artistic display

Most cultures have at some point had a practice of keeping large amounts of wealth stored in the form of jewellery. Numerous cultures move wedding dowries in the form of jewellery or create jewellery as a means to store or display coins. Alternatively, jewellery has been used as a currency or trade good; an example being the use of slave beads.[citation needed] Many items of jewellery, such as brooches and buckles, originated as purely functional items, but evolved into decorative items as their functional requirement diminished.[5] Jewellery can also be symbolic of group membership, as in the case of the Christian crucifix orJewish Star of David, or of status, as in the case of chains of office, or the Western practice ofmarried people wearing a wedding ring. Wearing of amulets and devotional medals to provide protection or ward off evil is common in somecultures; these may take the form of symbols (such as the ankh), stones, plants, animals, body parts (such as the Khamsa), or glyphs (such as stylised versions of the Throne Verse in Islamic art).[6] Although artistic display has clearly been a function of jewellery from the very beginning, the other roles described above tended to take primacy.[citation needed] It was only in the late 19th century, with the work of such masters as Peter Carl Faberg and Ren Lalique, that art began to take primacy over function and wealth.[citation needed] This trend has continued into modern times, expanded upon by artists such as Robert Lee Morris, Ed Levin, and Alberto Repossi. Materials and methods

Anticlastic raised sterling bracelet. In creating jewellery, gemstones, coins, or other precious items are often used, and they are typically set into precious metals. Alloys of nearly every metal known have been encountered in jewellery. Bronze, for example, was common in Roman times. Modern fine jewellery usually includes gold, white gold, platinum, palladium, titanium, or silver. Most American and European gold

jewellery is made of an alloy of gold, the purity of which is stated in karats, indicated by a number followed by the letter K. American gold jewellery must be of at least 10K purity (41.7% pure gold), (though in the UK the number is 9K (37.5% pure gold) and is typically found up to 18K (75% pure gold). Higher purity levels are less common with alloys at 22 K (91.6% pure gold), and 24 K (99.9% pure gold) being considered too soft for jewellery use in America and Europe. These high purity alloys, however, are widely used across Asia, the Middle East andAfrica.[citation needed] Platinum alloys range from 900 (90% pure) to 950 (95.0% pure). The silver used in jewellery is usually sterling silver, or 92.5% fine silver. In costume jewellery, stainless steel findings are sometimes used.

Bead embroidery design. Other commonly used materials include glass, such as fused-glass or enamel; wood, often carved or turned; shells and other natural animal substances such as bone and ivory; natural clay;polymer clay; and even plastics. Hemp and other twines have been used as well to create jewellery that has more of a natural feel. However, any inclusion of lead or lead solder will cause an English Assay office (the building which gives English jewellery its stamp of approval, theHallmark) to destroy the piece.[citation needed] Beads are frequently used in jewellery. These may be made of glass, gemstones, metal, wood, shells, clay and polymer clay. Beaded jewellery commonly encompasses necklaces, bracelets,earrings, belts and rings. Beads may be large or small; the smallest type of beads used are known as seed beads, these are the beads used for the "woven" style of beaded jewellery. Another use of seed beads

is an embroidery technique where seed beads are sewn onto fabric backings to create broad collar neck pieces and beaded bracelets. Bead embroidery, a popular type of handwork during the Victorian era, is enjoying a renaissance in modern jewellery making. Beading, or beadwork, is also very popular in many African cultures. Advanced glass and glass beadmaking techniques by Murano and Venetian glassmastersdeveloped crystalline glass, enamelled glass (smalto), glass with threads of gold (goldstone), multicoloured glass (millefiori), milk-glass (lattimo), and imitation gemstones made of glassAs early as the 13th century, Murano glass and Murano beads were popular] Silversmiths, goldsmiths, and lapidaries methods include forging, casting, soldering or welding, cutting, carving and "cold-joining" (using adhesives, staples and rivets to assemble parts).[7] Diamonds

Diamonds. Diamonds were first mined in India.[8] Pliny may have mentioned them, although there is some debate as to the exact nature of the stone he referred to as Adamas;[9] In 2005, Australia,Botswana, Russia and Canada ranked among the primary sources of gemstone diamond production.[10][11] The British crown jewels contain the Cullinan Diamond, part of the largest gemquality rough diamond ever found (1905), at 3,106.75 carats (621.35 g). Now popular in engagement rings, this usage dates back to the marriage of Maximilian I to Mary of Burgundy in 1477.[12] Other gemstones Main article: Gemstone Many precious and semiprecious stones are used for jewellery. Among them are: Amber

Amber, an ancient organic gemstone, is composed of tree resin that has hardened over time. The stone must be at least one million years old to be classified as amber, and some amber can be up to 120 million years old. Amethyst Amethyst has historically been the most prized gemstone in the quartz family. It is treasured for its purple hue, which can range in tone from light to dark.

Spanish emerald and gold pendant at Victoria and Albert Museum. Emerald Emeralds are one of the three main precious gemstones (along with rubies and sapphires) and are known for their fine green to bluish green colour. They have been treasured throughout history, and some historians report that the Egyptians mined emerald as early as 3500 BC. Jade Jade is most commonly associated with the colour green but can come in a number of other colours, as well. Jade is closely linked to Asian culture, history, and tradition, and is sometimes referred to as the stone of heaven. Jasper Jasper is a gemstone of the chalcedony family that comes in a variety of colours. Often, jasper will feature unique and interesting patterns within the coloured stone. Picture jasper is a type of jasper known for the colours (often beiges and browns) and swirls in the stones pattern. Quartz Quartz refers to a family of crystalline gemstones of various colours and sizes. Among the well-known types of quartz are rose quartz (which has a delicate pink colour), and smoky quartz (which comes in a variety of shades of translucent brown). A number of other gemstones, such as Amethyst and Citrine, are also part of the quartz family. Rutilated quartz is a popular type of quartz containing needle-like inclusions. Ruby

Rubies are known for their intense red colour and are among the most highly valued precious gemstones. Rubies have been treasured for millennia. In Sanskrit, the word for ruby is ratnaraj, meaning king of precious stones. Sapphire The most popular form of sapphire is blue sapphire, which is known for its medium to deep blue colour and strong saturation. Fancy sapphires of various colours are also available. In the United States, blue sapphire tends to be the most popular and most affordable of the three major precious gemstones (emerald, ruby, and sapphire). Turquoise Turquoise is found in only a few places on earth, and the worlds largest turquoise producing region is the southwest United States. Turquoise is prized for its attractive colour, most often an intense medium blue or a greenish blue, and its ancient heritage. Turquoise is used in a great variety of jewellery styles. It is perhaps most closely associated with southwest and Native American jewellery, but it is also used in many sleek, modern styles. Some turquoise contains a matrix of dark brown markings, which provides an interesting contrast to the gemstones bright blue colour. Some gemstones (like pearls, coral, and amber) are classified as organic, meaning that they are produced by living organisms. Others are inorganic, meaning that they are generally composed of and arise from minerals.[13] Some gems, for example, amethyst, have become less valued as methods of extracting and importing them have progressed. Some man-made gems can serve in place of natural gems, such as cubic zirconia, which can be used in place of diamond. Metal finishes

An example of gold plated jewellery For platinum, gold, and silver jewellery, there are many techniques to create finishes. The most common are high-polish, satin/matte, brushed, and hammered.

High-polished jewellery is by far the most common and gives the metal a highly reflective, shiny look. Satin, or matte finish reduces the shine and reflection of the jewellery and is commonly used to accentuate gemstones such as diamonds. Brushed finishes give the jewellery a textured look and are created by brushing a material (similar to sandpaper) against the metal, leaving "brush strokes." Hammered finishes are typically created by using a soft, rounded hammer and hammering the jewellery to give it a wavy texture. Some jewellery is plated to give it a shiny, reflective look or to achieve a desired colour. Sterling silver jewellery may be plated with a thin layer of 0.999 fine silver (a process known as flashing) or may be plated with rhodium or gold. Base metal costume jewellery may also be plated with silver, gold, or rhodium for a more attractive finish. Impact on society Jewellery has been used to denote status. In ancient Rome, for instance, only certain ranks could wear rings;[16] Later, sumptuary lawsdictated who could wear what type of jewellery, again based on rank. Cultural dictates have also played a significant role. For example, the wearing of earrings by Western men was considered effeminate in the 19th century and early 20th century. More recently, the display of body jewellery, such as piercings, has become a mark of acceptance or seen as a badge of courage within some groups but is completely rejected in others. Likewise, hip hop culture has popularised the slang term blingbling, which refers to ostentatious display of jewellery by men or women. Conversely, the jewellery industry in the early 20th century launched a campaign to popularise wedding rings for men, which caught on, as well as engagement rings for men, which did not, going so far as to create a false history and claim that the practice had medieval roots. By the mid 1940s, 85% of weddings in the U.S. featured a double-ring ceremony, up from 15% in the 1920s.[17] Religion has also played a role: Islam, for instance, considers the wearing of gold by men as a social taboo,[18] and many religions have edicts against excessive display.[19]In Christianity, the New Testament gives injunctions against the wearing of gold, in the writings of the apostles Paul and Peter. In Revelation 17, "the great whore" or false religious system, is depicted as being "decked with gold and precious stones and pearls, having a golden cup in her hand." (Rev. 17:4)

History The history of jewellery is a long one, with many different uses among different cultures. It has endured for thousands of years and has provided various insights into how ancient cultures worked. Early history The first signs of jewellery came from the people in Africa. Perforated beads made from snail shells have been found dating to 75,000 years ago at Blombos Cave. In Kenya, at Enkapune Ya Muto, beads made from perforated ostrich egg shells have been dated to more than 40,000 years ago. Outside of Africa, the Cro-Magnons had crude necklaces and bracelets of bone, teeth, berries, and stone hung on pieces of string or animalsinew, or pieces of carved bone used to secure clothing together. In some cases, jewellery had shell or mother-of-pearl pieces. In southernRussia, carved bracelets made of mammoth tusk have been found. The Venus of Hohle Fels features a perforation at the top, showing that it was intended to be worn as a pendant. Around 7,000 years ago, the first sign of copper jewellery was seen.[5] Egypt

An 18th dynasty pharaonic era princess' crown The first signs of established jewellery making in Ancient Egypt was around 3,000-5,000 years ago.[20] The Egyptians preferred the luxury, rarity, and workability of gold over other metals.Predynastic Egypt had Jewellery in Egypt soon began to symbolise power and religious power in the community. Although it was worn by wealthy Egyptians in life, it was also worn by them in death, with jewellery commonly placed among grave goods.

In conjunction with gold jewellery, Egyptians used coloured glass, along with precious gems. The colour of the jewellery had significance. Green, for example, symbolised fertility. Although lapis lazuli and silver had to be imported from beyond the countrys borders, many other materials for jewellery were found in or near Egypt. Egyptian jewellery was predominantly made in large workshops. Egyptian designs were most common in Phoenician jewellery. Also, ancient Turkish designs found in Persian jewellery suggest that trade between the Middle East and Europe was not uncommon. Women wore elaborate gold and silver pieces that were used in ceremonies.[20] Europe and the Middle East Mesopotamia By approximately 4,000 years ago, jewellery-making had become a significant craft in the cities ofSumer and Akkad. The most significant archaeological evidence comes from the Royal Cemetery of Ur, where hundreds of burials dating 29002300 BC were unearthed; tombs such as that ofPuabi contained a multitude of artefacts in gold, silver, and semi-precious stones, such as lapis lazuli crowns embellished with gold figurines, close-fitting collar necklaces, and jewel-headed pins. In Assyria, men and women both wore extensive amounts of jewellery, including amulets, ankle bracelets, heavy multi-strand necklaces, and cylinder seals.[21] Jewellery in Mesopotamia tended to be manufactured from thin metal leaf and was set with large numbers of brightly-coloured stones (chiefly agate, lapis, carnelian, and jasper). Favoured shapes included leaves, spirals, cones, and bunches of grapes. Jewellers created works both for human use and for adorning statues and idols. They employed a wide variety of sophisticated metalworking techniques, such ascloisonn, engraving, fine granulation, and filigree.[22] Extensive and meticulously maintained records pertaining to the trade and manufacture of jewellery have also been unearthed throughout Mesopotamian archaeological sites. One record in the Mari royal archives, for example, gives the composition of various items of jewellery: 1 necklace of flat speckled chalcedony beads including: 34 flat speckled chalcedony bead, [and] 35 gold fluted beads, in groups of five. 1 necklace of flat speckled chalcedony beads including: 39 flat speckled chalcedony beads, [with] 41 fluted beads in a group that make up the hanging device.

1 necklace with rounded lapis lazuli beads including: 28 rounded lapis lazuli beads, [and] 29 fluted beads for its clasp.[23] Greece

Gold earring from Mycenae, 16th century BC. The Greeks started using gold and gems in jewellery in 1600 BC, although beads shaped as shells and animals were produced widely in earlier times. By 300 BC, the Greeks had mastered making coloured jewellery and using amethysts, pearl, and emeralds. Also, the first signs ofcameos appeared, with the Greeks creating them from Indian Sardonyx, a striped brown pink and cream agate stone. Greek jewellery was often simpler than in other cultures, with simple designs and workmanship. However, as time progressed, the designs grew in complexity and different materials were soon used.

Pendant with naked woman, made fromelectrum, Rhodes, around 630-620 BC.

Jewellery in Greece was hardly worn and was mostly used for public appearances or on special occasions. It was frequently given as a gift and was predominantly worn by women to show their wealth, social status, and beauty. The jewellery was often supposed to give the wearer protection from the Evil Eye or endowed the owner with supernatural powers, while others had a religious symbolism. Older pieces of jewellery that have been found were dedicated to the Gods. The largest production of jewellery in these times came from Northern Greece and Macedon. However, although much of the jewellery in Greece was made of gold and silver with ivory andgemstones, bronze and clay copies were made also.

They worked two styles of pieces: cast pieces and pieces hammered out of sheet metal. Fewer pieces of cast jewellery have been recovered. It was made by casting the metal onto two stone or clay moulds. The two halves were then joined together, and wax, followed by molten metal, was placed in the centre. This technique had been practised since the late Bronze Age. The more common form of jewellery was the hammered sheet type. Sheets of metal would be hammered to thickness and then soldered together. The inside of the two sheets would be filled with wax or another liquid to preserve the metal work. Different techniques, such as using a stamp or engraving, were then used to create motifs on the jewellery. Jewels may then be added to hollows or glass poured into special cavities on the surface. The Greeks took much of their designs from outer origins, such as Asia, when Alexander the Great conquered part of it. In earlier designs, other European influences can also be detected. When Roman rule came to Greece, no change in jewellery designs was detected. However, by 27 BC, Greek designs were heavily influenced by the Roman culture. That is not to say that indigenous design did not thrive. Numerous polychrome butterfly pendants on silver foxtail chains, dating from the 1st century, have been found near Olbia, with only one example ever found anywhere else.[24]

Rome

Roman Amethyst intaglio engraved gem, c. 212 AD; later regarded as of St. Peter. Although jewellery work was abundantly diverse in earlier times, especially among the barbarian tribes such as the Celts, when the Romans conquered most of Europe, jewellery was changed as smaller factions developed the Roman designs. The most common artefact of early Rome was thebrooch, which was used to secure clothing together. The Romans used a diverse range of materials for their jewellery from their extensive resources across the continent. Although they used gold, they sometimes used bronze or bone, and in earlier times, glass beads & pearl. As early as 2,000 years ago, they imported Sri Lankan sapphires and Indian diamonds and used emeralds and amber in their jewellery. In Roman-ruled England, fossilised wood called jet from Northern England was often carved into pieces of jewellery. The early Italians worked in crude gold and created clasps, necklaces, earrings, and bracelets. They also produced larger pendants that could be filled with perfume. Like the Greeks, often the purpose of Roman jewellery was to ward off the Evil Eye given by other people. Although women wore a vast array of jewellery, men often only wore a finger ring. Although they were expected to wear at least one ring, some Roman men wore a ring on every finger, while others wore none. Roman men and women wore rings with an engraved gem on it that was used with wax to seal documents, a practice that continued into medieval times when kings and noblemen used the same method. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the jewellery designs were absorbed by neighbouring countries and tribes.[20]

Middle Ages

Merovingian fibulae, Bibliothque nationale de France.

6th century bronze eagle-shaped Visigothic cloisonn fibula from Guadalajara,Spain, using glass-paste fillings in imitation of garnets. Post-Roman Europe continued to develop jewellery making skills. The Celts and Merovingians in particular are noted for their jewellery, which in terms of quality matched or exceeded that of Byzantium. Clothing fasteners, amulets, and, to a lesser extent, signet rings, are the most common artefacts known to us. A particularly striking celtic example is the Tara Brooch. The Torc was common throughout Europe as a symbol of status and power. By the 8th century, jewelled weaponry was common for men, while other jewellery (with the exception of signet rings) seemed to become the domain of women. Grave goods found in a 6th-7th century burial near Chalon-sur-Sane are illustrative. A young girl was buried with: 2 silver fibulae, a necklace (with coins),

bracelet, gold earrings, a pair of hair-pins, comb, and buckle. [25] The Celts specialised in continuous patterns and designs, while Merovingian designs are best known for stylised animal figures.[26] They were not the only groups known for high quality work. Note the Visigoth work shown here, and the numerous decorative objects found at the Anglo-Saxon Ship burial at Sutton Hoo Suffolk, England are a particularly well-known example.[20] On the continent, cloisonn and garnet were perhaps the quintessential method and gemstone of the period.

The Eastern successor of the Roman Empire, theByzantine Empire, continued many of the methods of the Romans, though religious themes came to predominate. Unlike the Romans, the Franks, and the Celts, however, Byzantium used light-weight gold leaf rather than solid gold, and more emphasis was placed on stones and gems. As in the West, Byzantine jewellery was worn by wealthier females, with male jewellery apparently restricted to signet rings. Like other contemporary cultures, jewellery was commonly buried with its owner.[27] Renaissance

The Renaissance and exploration both had significant impacts on the development of jewellery in Europe. By the 17th century, increasing exploration and trade led to increased availability of a wide variety of gemstones as well as exposure to the art of other cultures. Whereas prior to this the working of gold and precious metal had been at the forefront of jewellery, this period saw increasing dominance of gemstones and their settings. A fascinating example of this is theCheapside Hoard, the stock of a jeweller hidden in London during the Commonwealth period and not found again until 1912. It contained Colombian emerald, topaz, amazonite from Brazil, spinel,iolite, and chrysoberyl from Sri Lanka, ruby from India, Afghani lapis lazuli, Persian turquoise, Red Sea peridot, as well as Bohemian and Hungarian opal, garnet, and amethyst. Large stones were frequently set in boxbezels on enamelled rings.[28] Notable among merchants of the period wasJeanBaptiste Tavernier, who brought the precursor stone of the Hope Diamond to France in the 1660s. When Napoleon Bonaparte was crowned as Emperor of the French in 1804, he revived the style and grandeur of jewellery and fashion in France. Under Napoleons rule, jewellers introducedparures, suites of matching jewellery, such as a diamond tiara, diamond earrings, diamond rings, a diamond brooch, and a diamond necklace. Both of Napoleons wives had beautiful sets such as these and wore them regularly. Another fashion trend resurrected by Napoleon was the cameo. Soon after his cameo decorated crown was seen, cameos were highly sought. The period also saw the early stages of costume jewellery, with fish scale covered glass beads in place of pearlsor conch shell cameos instead of stone cameos. New terms were coined to differentiate the arts: jewellers who worked in cheaper materials were called bijoutiers, while jewellers who worked with expensive materials were called joailliers, a practice which continues to this day.

Romanticism

Mourning jewellery in the form of a jetbrooch, 19th century. Starting in the late 18th century, Romanticism had a profound impact on the development of western jewellery. Perhaps the most significant influences were the publics fascination with the treasures being discovered through the birth of modern archaeology and a fascination with Medieval and Renaissance art. Changing social conditions and the onset of the Industrial Revolution also led to growth of a middle class that wanted and could afford jewellery. As a result, the use of industrial processes, cheaper alloys, and stone substitutes led to the development of paste or costume jewellery. Distinguished goldsmiths continued to flourish, however, as wealthier patrons sought to ensure that what they wore still stood apart from the jewellery of the masses, not only through use of precious metals and stones but also though superior artistic and technical work. One such artist was the French goldsmith Franoise Dsire Froment Meurice. A category unique to this period and quite appropriate to the philosophy of romanticism was mourning jewellery. It originated in England, where Queen Victoria was often seen wearing jet jewellery after the death of Prince Albert, and it allowed the wearer to continue wearing jewellery while expressing a state of mourning at the death of a loved one.[29] In the United states, this period saw the founding in 1837 of Tiffany & Co. by Charles Lewis Tiffany. Tiffany's put the United States on the world map in terms of jewellery and gained fame creating dazzling commissions for people such as the wife of Abraham Lincoln. Later, it would gain popular notoriety as the setting of the film Breakfast at Tiffany's. In France, Pierre Cartier founded Cartier SA in 1847, while 1884 saw the founding of Bulgari in Italy. The modern

production studio had been born and was a step away from the former dominance of individual craftsmen and patronage. This period also saw the first major collaboration between East and West. Collaboration in Pforzheim between German and Japanese artists led to Shakud plaques set into Filigree frames being created by the Stoeffler firm in 1885).[30] Perhaps the grand final and an appropriate transition to the following period were the masterful creations of the Russian artist Peter Carl Faberg, working for the Imperial Russian court, whose Faberg eggs and jewellery pieces are still considered as the epitome of the goldsmiths art. Art Nouveau In the 1890s, jewellers began to explore the potential of the growing Art Nouveau style and the closely related German Jugendstil, British (and to some extent American) Arts and Crafts Movement, Catalan Modernisme, AustroHungarian Sezession, Italian "Liberty", etc. Art Nouveau jewellery encompassed many distinct features including a focus on the female form and an emphasis on colour, most commonly rendered through the use of enamelling techniques including basse-taille, champleve, cloisonn, and plique--jour. Motifs included orchids, irises, pansies, vines, swans, peacocks, snakes, dragonflies, mythological creatures, and the female silhouette. Ren Lalique, working for the Paris shop of Samuel Bing, was recognised by contemporaries as a leading figure in this trend. The Darmstadt Artists' Colony and Wiener Werksttte provided perhaps the most significant German input to the trend, while in Denmark Georg Jensen, though best known for his Silverware, also contributed significant pieces. In England, Liberty & Co. and the British arts & crafts movement ofCharles Robert Ashbee contributed slightly more linear but still characteristic designs. The new style moved the focus of the jeweller's art from the setting of stones to the artistic design of the piece itself. Lalique's dragonfly design is one of the best examples of this. Enamelsplayed a large role in technique, while sinuous organic lines are the most recognisable design feature. The end of World War I once again changed public attitudes, and a more sober style developed.[31] Art Deco Growing political tensions, the after-effects of the war, and a reaction against the perceived decadence of the turn of the 20th century led to simpler forms, combined with more effective manufacturing for mass production of high-quality

jewellery. Covering the period of the 1920s and 1930s, the style has become popularly known as Art Deco. Walter Gropius and the German Bauhaus movement, with their philosophy of "no barriers between artists and craftsmen" led to some interesting and stylistically simplified forms. Modern materials were also introduced: plastics and aluminium were first used in jewellery, and of note are the chromed pendants of Russian-born Bauhaus master Naum Slutzky. Technical mastery became as valued as the material itself. In the West, this period saw the reinvention of granulation by the GermanElizabeth Treskow, although development of the re-invention has continued into the 1990s. Asia

Royal earrings, India, 1st Century BC. In Asia, the Indian subcontinent has the longest continuous legacy of jewellery making anywhere, with a history of over 5,000 years.[32] One of the first to start jewellery making were the peoples of the Indus Valley Civilization in what is now predominately modern-day Pakistan. Early jewellery making in China started around the same period, but it became widespread with the spread ofBuddhism around 2,000 years ago. India India has a long jewellery history, which went through various changes through cultural influence and politics for more than 5,000-8,000 years. India has the longest continuous legacy of jewellery making anywhere since Ramayana and Mahabharata times. Because India had abundant amount of jewellery resources, it prospered financially through export and exchange with other countries.While Western traditions were heavily influenced by waxing and waning empires, India enjoyed a continuous development of art forms for some

5,000 years.[32] One of the first to start jewellery making were the peoples of the Indus Valley Civilization (encompassing present-day Pakistan and northwest India). By 1500 BC, the peoples of the Indus Valley were creating gold earrings and necklaces, bead necklaces, and metallic bangles. Before 2100 BC, prior to the period when metals were widely used, the largest jewellery trade in the Indus Valley region was the bead trade. Beads in the Indus Valley were made using simple techniques. First, a bead maker would need a rough stone, which would be bought from an eastern stone trader. The stone would then be placed into a hot oven where it would be heated until it turned deep red, a colour highly prized by people of the Indus Valley. The red stone would then be chipped to the right size and a hole bored through it with primitive drills. The beads were then polished. Some beads were also painted with designs. This art form was often passed down through family. Children of bead makers often learned how to work beads from a young age. Persian style also plays a big role in Indias jewellery. Each stone had its own characteristics related to Hinduism. Jewellery in the Indus Valley was worn predominantly by females, who wore numerous clay or shell bracelets on their wrists. They were often shaped like doughnuts and painted black. Over time, clay bangles were discarded for more durable ones. In present-day India, bangles are made out of metal or glass. Other pieces that women frequently wore were thin bands of gold that would be worn on the forehead, earrings, primitive brooches, chokers, and gold rings. Although women wore jewellery the most, some men in the Indus Valley wore beads. Small beads were often crafted to be placed in men and womens hair. The beads were about one millimetre long. A female skeleton (presently on display at the National Museum, New Delhi, India) wears a carlinean bangle (bracelet) on her left hand. According to Hindu belief, Gold and silver are considered as sacred metal symbolic of the warm sun, the other suggesting the cool moonare the quintessential metals of Indian jewellery. Pure gold does not oxidise or corrode with time, which is why Hindu tradition associates gold with immortality. Gold imagery occurs frequently in ancient Indian literature. In the Vedic Hindu myth of cosmological creation, the source of physical and spiritual human life originated in and evolved from a golden womb (hiranyagarbha) or egg (hiranyanda), a metaphor of the sun, whose light rises from the primordial waters.[33] Mughal reign was the most significant period of time in relation to jewellery. A lot of jewellery prospered from sixteenth to the nineteenth century. Jewellery had merit in Indias royalty, it was very powerful that the royalty established laws,

which was only limited to the royalty. Only royalty and few others whom they granted permission could wear gold ornaments on their feet. This would normally be considered breaking the appreciation of the sacred metals. Even though the majority of the Indian population wore jewelries, Maharaja and people related to the royalty had deeper connection with jewellery. Maharaja's role was so important that the Hindu philosophers identified him as the central to the smooth working of the world. He was considered as a divine being, deities in human form, whose duty was to uphold and protect dharma, the moral order of the universe.[34]

A Navaratna ring. Indian gemstone uses Navaratna (nine gems), which is the powerful jewel Maharaja frequently wore. It is an amulet, which comprises diamond, pearl, ruby, sapphire, emerald, topaz, cats eye, coral, and hyacinth (red zircon). Each of these stones was associated with a celestial deity, represented the totality of the Hindu universe with all nine gems all together. Among all the gemstones, diamond is the most powerful gem among nine stones. There were various cuts for the gemstone. Indian Kings bought gemstones privately from the sellers. Maharaja and other royal family members value gem as Hindu God. They exchanged gems with people whom they were very close to, especially the royal family members and other intimate allies. Only the emperor himself, his intimate relations, and select members of his entourage were permitted to wear royal turban ornament. As the empire matured, differing styles of ornament acquired the generic name of sarpech, from sar or sir, meaning head, and pech, meaning fastener. India was the first country to mine diamonds, with some mines dating back to 296 BC. India traded the diamonds, realising their valuable qualities. Historically, diamonds have been given to retain or regain a lovers or rulers lost favour, as symbols of tribute, or as an expression of fidelity in exchange for concessions and protection. Mughal emperors used the diamonds as a means of assuring their immortality by having their names and wordly titles inscribed upon them.

Moreover, it has played and continues to play a pivotal role in Indian social, political, economic, and religious event, as it often has done elsewhere. In Indian history, diamonds have been used to acquire military equipment, finance wars, foment revolutions, and tempt defections. They have contributed to the abdication or the decapitation of potentates. They have been used to murder a representative of the dominating power by lacing his food with crushed diamond. Indian diamonds have been used as security to finance large loans needed to buttress politically or economically tottering regimes. Victorious military heroes have been honoured by rewards of diamonds and also have been used as ransom payment for release from imprisonment or abduction. [35] Today, many of the jewellery designs and traditions are used, and jewellery is commonplace in Indian ceremonies and weddings.[36] North and South America Jewellery played a major role in the fate of the Americas when the Spanish established an empire to seize South American gold. Jewellery making developed in the Americas 5,000 years ago in Central and South America. Large amounts of gold was easily accessible, and theAztecs, Mixtecs, Mayans, and numerous Andean cultures, such as the Mochica of Peru, created beautiful pieces of jewellery. With the Mochica culture, goldwork flourished. The pieces are no longer simple metalwork, but are now masterful examples of jewellery making. Pieces are sophisticated in their design, and feature inlays of turquoise, mother of pearl, spondylus shell, and amethyst. The nose and ear ornaments, chest plates, small containers and whistles are considered masterpieces of ancient Peruvian culture.
[37]

Moche Ear Ornaments. 1-800 AD. Larco Museum Collection, Lima-Peru Among the Aztecs, only nobility wore gold jewellery, as it showed their rank, power, and wealth. Gold jewellery was most common in the Aztec Empire and was often decorated with feathers fromQuetzal birds and others. In general, the

more jewellery an Aztec noble wore, the higher his status or prestige. The Emperor and his High Priests, for example, would be nearly completely covered in jewellery when making public appearances. Although gold was the most common and a popular material used in Aztec jewellery, Jade, Turquoise, and certain feathers were considered more valuable.[38] In addition to adornment and status, the Aztecs also used jewellery in sacrifices to appease the gods. Priests also used gem-encrusted daggers to perform animal and human sacrifices.[20][29] Another ancient American civilization with expertise in jewellery making were the Maya. At the peak of their civilization, the Maya were making jewellery from jade, gold, silver, bronze, andcopper. Maya designs were similar to those of the Aztecs, with lavish headdresses and jewellery. The Maya also traded in precious gems. However, in earlier times, the Maya had little access to metal, so they made the majority of their jewellery out of bone or stone. Merchants and nobility were the only few that wore expensive jewellery in the Maya Empire, much the same as with the Aztecs.[36] In North America, Native Americans used shells, wood, turquoise, and soapstone, almost unavailable in South and Central America. The turquoise was used in necklaces and to be placed in earrings. Native Americans with access to oyster shells, often located in only one location in America, traded the shells with other tribes, showing the great importance of the body adornment trade in Northern America.[39] China The Chinese used silver in their jewellery more than gold. Blue kingfisher feathers were tied onto early Chinese jewellery and later, blue gems and glass were incorporated into designs. However, jade was preferred over any other stone. The Chinese revered jade because of the human-like qualities they assigned to it, such as its hardness, durability, and beauty. [5] The first jade pieces were very simple, but as time progressed, more complex designs evolved. Jade rings from between the 4th and 7th centuries BC show evidence of having been worked with a compound milling machine, hundreds of years before the first mention of such equipment in the west.[40]

Jade coiled serpent, Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD)

`Xin' Shape Jewellery from Ming Dynasty Tombs, (13681644) In China,the most uncommon piece of jewellery was the earring, which was worn neither by men nor women. Amulets were common, often with a Chinese symbol or dragon. Dragons, Chinese symbols, and phoenixes were frequently depicted on jewellery designs. The Chinese often placed their jewellery in their graves. Most Chinese graves found byarchaeologists contain decorative jewellery.[36] Pacific Main article: Jewellery in the Pacific Jewellery making in the Pacific started later than in other areas because of recent human settlement. Early Pacific jewellery was made of bone, wood, and other natural materials, and thus has not survived. Most Pacific jewellery is worn above the waist, with headdresses, necklaces, hair pins, and arm and waist belts being the most common pieces. Jewellery in the Pacific, with the exception of Australia, is worn to be a symbol of either fertility or power. Elaborate headdresses are worn by many Pacific cultures and some, such as the inhabitants of Papua New Guinea, wear certain headdresses once they have killed an enemy. Tribesman may wear boar bones through their noses. Island jewellery is still very much primal because of the lack of communication with outside cultures. Some areas of Borneo and Papua New Guinea are yet to be

explored by Western nations. However, the island nations that were flooded with Western missionaries have had drastic changes made to their jewellery designs. Missionaries saw any type of tribal jewellery as a sign of the wearer's devotion to paganism. Thus many tribal designs were lost forever in the mass conversion to Christianity.[41]

A modern opal bracelet Australia is now the number one supplier of opals in the world. Opals had already been mined in Europe and South America for many years prior, but in the late 19th century, the Australian opal market became predominant. Australian opals are only mined in a few select places around the country, making it one the most profitable stones in the Pacific.[42] The New Zealand Mori traditionally had a strong culture of personal adornment, [43] most famously the hei-tiki. Hei-tikis are traditionally carved by hand from bone, nephrite, or bowenite. Nowadays a wide range of such traditionally-inspired items such as bone carved pendants based on traditional fishhooks hei matau and other greenstone jewellery are popular with young New Zealanders of all backgrounds - for whom they relate to a generalized sense of New Zealand identity. These trends have contributed towards a worldwide interest in traditional Mori culture and arts. Other than jewellery created through Mori influence, modern jewellery in New Zealand is multicultural and varied.[41] Modern The modern jewellery movement began in the late 1940s at the end of World War II with a renewed interest in artistic and leisurely pursuits. The movement is most noted with works by Georg Jensen and other jewellery designers who advanced the concept of wearable art. The advent of new materials, such as plastics, Precious Metal Clay (PMC), and colouring techniques, has led to increased variety in styles. Other advances, such as the development of

improved pearl harvesting by people such as Mikimoto Kkichi and the development of improved quality artificial gemstones such as moissanite (a diamond simulant), has placed jewellery within the economic grasp of a much larger segment of the population. The "jewellery as art" movement was spearheaded by artisans such as Robert Lee Morris and continued by designers such as Gill Forsbrook in the UK. Influence from other cultural forms is also evident. One example of this is blingbling style jewellery, popularised by hip-hop and rap artists in the early 21st century. The late 20th century saw the blending of European design with oriental techniques such as Mokume-gane. The following are innovations in the decades straddling the year 2000: "Mokume-gane, hydraulic die forming, anticlastic raising, fold-forming, reactive metal anodising, shell [44] forms, PMC, photoetching, and [use of] CAD/CAM." Artisan jewellery continues to grow as both a hobby and a profession. With more than 17 United States periodicals about beading alone, resources, accessibility, and a low initial cost of entry continues to expand production of hand-made adornments. Some fine examples of artisan jewellery can be seen at The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City.[45]