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3.1 Summary
This chapter presents the basics for calculating the temperature gradient and estimating the contaminant concentration in a displacement ventilated room. Main items in this chapter are: Air flow patterns Temperature distribution Convection flows Contaminant distribution Thermal comfort which is the subject of this book, a stratified flow is created using the buoyancy forces in the room. The air quality in the occupied zone is then generally better than with mixing ventilation. The ventilation system supplying the air to the room is not considered in this book, only the air flow within the room.
3.2 Conclusions
The contaminant concentration is always better in the occupied zone in a displacement-ventilated room than in a room ventilated by mixing ventilation. Theoretically we need a supply air volume flow of 20 l/s per person to keep the occupied zone free from contaminants. However due to the free convection around a person a smaller supply air volume flow gives a much better air quality in the breathing zone. A supply air volume flow of 10 l/s per person gives e.g. a concentration that is only 20% of the concentration in the ambient at the same level. The vertical temperature distribution has to be given attention. Make sure that a suitable diffuser is utilised in order to avoid cold air along the floor.
Figure 3.1 Schematic illustration of the air flow that might be found in a room ventilated by displacement ventilation Displacement ventilation has for many years been used in industrial premises with high thermal loads. Since mid 80s it has also been used in non-industrial premises to a large extent, especially in the Scandinavian countries. In recent years the interest in displacement ventilation has increased all over the world. Displacement ventilation presents the opportunity to improve both the temperature effectiveness and the ventilation effectiveness. The principle is based on air density differences where the room air separates into two layers, an upper polluted zone and a lower clean zone, see Figure 3.1. This is achieved by supplying cool air with a low velocity in the lower zone and extracting the air in the upper zone. Free convection from heat sources creates a vertical air movement in the room. When the convection heat sources in the room are also the contamination sources, the convection flows transport the warm polluted air up to the upper zone. The convection flow rates 9
Rehva Displacement Ventilation Guidebook relative to the ventilation flow rate determine the height of the boundary between the two zones. The sum of the warm convection flow rates to the upper zone minus the downward directed flows from cold surfaces to the lower zone is equal to the ventilation flow rate in the room. An increased ventilation flow rate thus moves the boundary upwards and a decreased flow rate moves the boundary downwards at fixed convection flow rates. ceiling or settle at a lower height see Figure 3.3.
Figure 3.3 Vertical air movement caused by convection. The supply air temperature must be lower than the room air temperature, which is normally given when there is a heat surplus in the room. If the supply air temperature is warmer there will be a short-circuit, see Figure 3.4. However the vertical air flow has a certain amount of entrainment, which causes some circulation in the rest of the room, this is sometimes used for heating an empty room before occupational time.
Figure 3.4 Short-circuit of air flow in a room when the supply air temperature is warmer than the room air temperature. Figure 3.2 Horizontal air movement in connection with the extract. The vertical air movement is caused by convection flows from warm sources or cold sinks. Warm objects such as people, computers, lamps etc. create rising convection flows. Depending on the power and geometry of the heat source the convection flows will rise all the way to the
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2,5 2,0 1,5 1,0 0,5 0,0 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2
1 qv 103 c p 1 + 1 +1 r cf A
(3.3)
where A= the floor area [m] = the heat transfer coefficient due to radiation [ 5 W/mK] cf = the heat transfer coefficient at the floor due to convection [ 4 W/mK] In Figure 3.6 the dimensionless temperature of the air near the floor is shown as a function of the ventilation flow rate per m2 floor area. The points shown in the figure are from measurements with distributed heat sources presented in eleven different references (Mundt, 1996).
= ( f - s ) / (e - s )
1,0 0,8 0,6 0,4 0,2 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
3.5.1 Temperature at the floor The temperature of the supply air in the floor area rises due to induction and convection, as radiation from the other warmer surfaces in the room in turn heats the floor. A dimensionless temperature of the air near the floor is often presented as
f s e s
(3.1)
cf = 5 W/mK cf = 3 W/mK
where: f = the air temperature near the floor s = the supply air temperature e = the exhaust air temperature The total temperature difference gives together with the air volume flow rate the amount of heat removed from the space:
qv c p ( e s ) 10 3 = tot
(3.2)
where: qv = the volume air flow rate [l/s] = the air density = 1,2 kg/m cp = the specific heat of the air = 1000 J/kgK tot = the heat removed from the space [W] Based on a literature review (Mundt, 1990) the following equation can be used to estimate the dimensionless temperature of the air near the floor.
Figure 3.6 Dimensionless temperature of the air near the floor as a function of the ventilation flow rate per m2 floor area with different heat transfer coefficients due to convection. 3.5.2 Vertical temperature distribution The vertical temperature distribution in the room depends on the vertical location of the heat sources. When the heat sources are in the lower part of the room the temperature gradient is larger in the lower part and the temperature more constant in the upper part. On the other hand, when the heat sources are
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Rehva Displacement Ventilation Guidebook located mostly in the upper zone, the temperature gradient is smaller in the lower part and increases in the upper part, see Figure 3.7.
Heat sources in the upper part of the room Heat sources in the lower part of the room
The temperature gradient is strongly influenced by the elevation of the heat sources. In rooms where the heat sources are located at a high level, displacement ventilation is efficient for keeping the occupied spaces cool. See Figure 3.8. However, the air temperatures near the floor,f ,and the vertical temperature gradient are not only a function of flow rate and load, they are also a function of the type of heat source in the room. According to Nielsen (1996) and Brohus and Ryberg (1999) the relative air temperature near the floor, (see equation 3.1) varies between 0,3 and 0,65 for different types of heat sources. See Figure 3.9. A concentrated heat load as e.g. a small furnace in an industrial environment can give a value of 0,3. Ceiling light will give a vertical temperature gradient with a floor temperature of = 0,5, which is generated by radiation from the light source. When persons are the primary heat source will have a value of 0,58, and evenly distributed heat sources will give a value of 0,65. It is obvious that this variation can be of the same magnitude as the one found at different flow rates.
2,5 2,0 1,5 1,0 0,5 0,0 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2
Temperature ratio
- s e - s
Figure 3.7 Temperature gradient in a displacement ventilated room with the heat sources at different levels. For a given arrangement of heat sources, the relative temperature distribution is relatively independent of the heat load.
Temperature
Figure 3.8 Roof heated by sun - an example where displacement ventilation is efficient.
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0,3
Temperature ratio
- s e - s
Distributed heat sources Sedentary persons Ceiling light Point heat source
50%
50%
Temperature
Figure 3.9 Vertical temperature distribution for different types of heat loads. The different temperature gradients are shown in Figure 3.9 where it is assumed that the vertical temperature distribution is a linear function of the height. If many different heat sources are present in the room it is advised to use the 50% rule (Chapter 3.6). 3.5.3 Temperature effectiveness As the exhaust temperature is higher than the air temperature in the occupied zone, a temperature effectiveness can be defined:
Figure 3.10 The "50%-rule" for vertical temperature distribution. The 50%-rule for the vertical temperature distribution says that the air temperature at floor is half-way between the supply air temperature and the extract air temperature. This is a general experience that may be used as a first approximation for most normal rooms and normal air diffusers. Example: If the heat balance and air flow rate in the room yields a temperature increase of e - s = 10K, then the temperature at floor level will become approximately 5K higher than the supply air temperature.
s = e oz s
(3.4)
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g L v 2
(3.5)
where: = density difference between the colder and the warmer air [kg/m] g = acceleration of gravity = 9,81 m/s L = a characteristic length [m] = air density [kg/m] v = air velocity [m/s] The Archimedes number can be expressed in a number of ways, using temperature differences to express density differences etc. But the basic fact is always the same: Larger numbers mean that the buoyancy forces are dominant Smaller numbers mean that inertia forces (velocities) are dominant
fluid dynamics are the commonly used approaches to evaluate air temperatures, velocities and air flow rates in thermal plumes above different heat sources and convection flows at vertical surfaces. All plumes encountered in practical ventilation are turbulent flows, and follow the similarity laws for fully turbulent flows. The amount of air in the convection flows increases with height due to entrainment of the surrounding air. The amount of air transported in a natural convection flow depends on the temperature and the geometry of the source and the temperature of the surrounding air. As the driving force in convection flows is the buoyancy force caused by the density difference (i.e. the temperature difference) a temperature gradient in the room influences the plume rise height.
Flow
qv
su
su
Flow
Figure 3.11 Convection flows - the engine of displacement ventilation. Natural convection flows are the engines of displacement ventilation. A natural convection flow is the air current that rises above warm objects like people or computers, rises along a warm wall, or descends from cold objects like windows or outer walls, due to buoyancy. See Figures 3.11 - 3.13. To understand displacement ventilation, one has to understand the nature of the natural convection flows, and to know the magnitude of these flows. The convection flow rising above a hot object is called a thermal plume, or simply a plume. Empirical, analytical and computational
qv
14
3 BASIC KNOWLEDGE ABOUT DISPLACEMENT VENTILATION researchers (Mierzwinski, 1981, Popiolek, 1981) and are listed in Table 3.1. The equations in Table 3.1 were derived with the assumption that the heat source size was very small and did not account for the actual source dimensions.
Flow
qv
Figure 3.13 Thermal plume above a horizontal source. 3.8.1 Point and line sources Thermal plumes above point and line sources (Figure 3.14) have been studied for many years. Among the earliest publications are those from Zeldovich (1937) and Schmidt (1941). Turner (1973) gives a comprehensive record of most of the phenomena encountered in connection with buoyancy effects in fluids. Analytical equations to calculate velocities, temperatures and air flow rates in thermal plumes over point and line heat sources with given heat loads were derived based on the momentum and energy conservation equations and assuming Gaussian velocity and excessive temperature distribution in thermal plume cross-sections (Mundt, 1996). These equations correspond with those received experimentally by other
Point source
Line source
Figure 3.14 Plumes from a point source and from a line source. The coefficients in the equations differ slightly in different references depending on the entrainment coefficients used. is the convective heat flux in W or W/m from the heat source and z is the height above the level of the heat source. The convective heat flux can be estimated from the energy consumption of the heat source tot by
= k tot
(3.6)
The value of the coefficient k is 0,7-0,9 for pipes and ducts, 0,4-0,6 for smaller components and 0,3-0,5 for larger machines and components (Nielsen, 1993 B).
Table 3.1 Characteristics of thermal plumes above point and line sources. Parameter Centreline velocity, vz [m/s] Centreline excessive temperature, z [K] Air flow rate, qv,z [l/s for point source, l/sm for line source] Point source vz = 0,128 1/3 z 1/3 z = 0,329 2/3 z 5/3 qv,z = 5 1/3 z 5/3 Line source vz = 0,067 1/3 z = 0,094 2/3 z 1 qv,z = 13 1/3 z
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Rehva Displacement Ventilation Guidebook 1994), see Figure 3.15. The virtual origin is located along the plume axis at a distance z0 on the other side of the real source surface.
Flow
qv
3.8.2 Convection flow along vertical and horizontal surfaces Convection flow along vertical surfaces is also of major interest. When the vertical extension of the surface is small the convection flow is mainly laminar and at larger extensions the flow is turbulent. The basic equations for a surface with a constant temperature are given in Table 3.2 (Jaluria, 1980, Etheridge and Sandberg, 1996).
is the temperature difference between the surface and the surrounding air and z is the height from the bottom of the surface. The flow changes from laminar to turbulent at GrPr=7108, which for air and moderate temperature differences means around z = 1 m and for air at higher temperatures around z = 0,5 m.
Convection flows from horizontal surfaces are very difficult to determine in the same basic way as for point, line or vertical sources. The reason is that the flows behave in a very unstable way and leaves the flat surface from different positions at different times, partly depending on the total air movement in the room. These surfaces are mostly treated as plumes from extended sources see chapter 3.8.3. 3.8.3 Extended sources In reality heat sources are seldom a point, a line or a plane vertical surface. The most common approach to account for the real source dimensions is to use a virtual source from which the air flow rates are calculated (Elterman 1980, Mundt 1992, Skistad Parameter Maximum velocity, v z [m/s]
z0
b) Extended source
Figure 3.15 Illustration of the position of the virtual source The adjustment of the point source model to the realistic sources using the virtual source method gives a reasonable estimate of the air flow rate in thermal plumes. The weak part of this method is how to estimate the location of the virtual located point source. The method of a "maximum case" and a "minimum case" provides a tool for such estimation. See Figure 3.16 (Skistad 1994). According to the "maximum case", the real source is replaced by the point source such that the border of the plume above the point source passes through the top edge of the real
Table 3.2 Characteristics of convection flows along vertical surfaces Laminar region v z = 0,1 z Turbulent region v z = 0,1 z
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3 BASIC KNOWLEDGE ABOUT DISPLACEMENT VENTILATION source (e.g., cylinder). The "minimum case" is when the diameter of vena contracta of the plume is about 80% of the upper surface diameter and is located approximately 1/3 diameter above the source. The spreading angle of the plume is set to 25. For the lowtemperature sources, Skistad (1994) recommends the "maximum case", whereas the "minimum case" best fits the measurements for larger, high temperature sources. The maximum case gives z0 = 2,3D and the minimum case z0 = 1,8D with z0 defined in Figure 3.16. For a flat heat source Morton (1956) suggests the position of the virtual source to be located at z0 = 1,7-2,1D below the real source. Mundt (1996) calculates the thickness of the boundary layer (see Table 3.2) at the top of a vertical extended heat source and adds this to the source radii and then calculates the position of the virtual source as z0 = 2,1(D+2) before using the point source equation. According to Bach et al (1993) the volume flow from the vertical surfaces should be added to the volume flow calculated by the equations for point or line sources.
Example Calculate the convection flow rate 0,5 m above a cylinder with height 1 m and diameter 0,4 m. The convective heat flux is 50 W.
d0 z z0
d0
(The position of the virtual source is in this case (1,804 1 3) D = 1,47 D below the upper edge of the source)
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3.8.4 Plume interaction When a heat source is located close to a wall the plume may be attached to the wall, Figure 3.17. In this case the entrainment will be reduced compared to the entrainment in a free plume. The air flow rate from a heat source can then be calculated as half of the flow from a source with a heat emission of 2 (Nielsen, 1993 B).
qv , z =
5 (2 ) z 5 3 = 3,2 1 3 z 5 3 2
13
(3.7)
Plume 3
Plume 1
Plume 1
a) Plume attached to a wall b) Interaction between two plumes
Plume 2
Plume 2 Room
Figure 3.17 Thermal plumes. If the heat source is located in a corner the air flow rate is equal to 25% of the air flow from a heat source with a heat emission of 4 (Kofoed, 1991)
qv , z = 2 1 3 z 5 3
Figure 3.18 Schematic illustration of the air flow pattern in a room ventilated by displacement. Batchelor (1954) noticed the influence of a temperature gradient in the surroundings and Morton et al (1956) gave a solution for calculating the maximum plume rise from a point source in surroundings with a temperature gradient. The volume flow rates in the plumes in a room with temperature stratification is slightly decreased compared to the volume flow rates calculated with the equations presented for a non stratified media, Mundt (1992). Jin, (1993) studied the maximum plume rise height for plumes above welding arcs.
(3.8)
When several heat sources are positioned close to each other the plumes merge into a single plume, see Figure 3.17. The total flow from N identical sources is then given by, (Nielsen, 1993 B)
qv , z , N = N 1 3 qv , z
(3.9)
where
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3 BASIC KNOWLEDGE ABOUT DISPLACEMENT VENTILATION In the presence of a temperature gradient, the convective plume reaches the equilibrium height (zt) where the temperature difference between the plume and the ambient air disappears, see Figure 3.19. Also there is another level in the plume, where the air velocity equals to zero. This is referred to as the maximum height of the plume (zmax ).
Point source z* 2,8 2,1 zt zmax Line source z** 2,95 2,0
qv = 2,38 cf
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s 5 8 Z1
with Z1 = 0,004 + 0,039 z * + 0,380 z *2 0,062 z *3 (3.11) where: qv = the volume flow rate in l/s The maximum height zmax is given by Equation (3.10) for z* = 2,8 zmax = 0,98 cf s 3 8
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s=
d dz
(3.12)
>0
(3.13)
Figure 3.19 Vertical plume in a room with temperature gradients and stratification The plume spreads horizontally between these two heights. The convective flow below zt can be calculated from the following model (Mundt, 1996).
Point source The position of the virtual source is calculated. A dimensionless height z* above the virtual source is calculated
z * = 2,86 z s 3 / 8 cf1 / 4
Line source The position of the virtual source is calculated. A dimensionless height z** above the virtual source is calculated
z ** = 5,78 z s1 / 2 cf1 / 3
(3.14)
where: s = vertical temperature gradient ( /z in the room [K/m] cf = convective heat from the source [W/m] As can be seen from Figure 3.19 only z** values less than 2,0 are relevant to further calculations. The volume flow rate at the height z** is then given by qv ,l = 4,82 cf with
Z 2 = 0,004 + 0,477 z ** + 0,029 z **2 0,018 z **3
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(3.10)
where: s = vertical temperature gradient ( /z) in the room [K/m] cf = convective heat from the source [W] As can be seen from Figure 3.19 only z values less than 2,1 are relevant to further calculations. The volume flow rate at the height z* is then given by
*
s 1 2 Z 2
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Rehva Displacement Ventilation Guidebook The maximum height zmax is given by Equation (3.14) for z**=2,95 zmax = 0,51 cf
1 / 3 1 / 2
(3.16)
From the theories above and practical experiments, Nielsen (1993 B) has summarised the convection flows above some common objects found in nonindustrial environments, see Figure 3.20. The line drawn in the figure to the left is calculated by the equation for the air flow rate in Table 3.1. The convection flow above a sitting person is thus approximately 20 l/s, see Figure 3.21. In order to keep the inhaled air at a lower concentration than the ambient a lower air flow may however be used in calculations, see Chapter 3.10.
Height above floor [m] 2,5 2,0 1,5 1,0 0,5 0 s = d/dz = 1,5 C/m qvz = 20 l/s
2,0
3,0
4,0 5,0
Height above floor, z [m] Convection flow rate, qvz [l/s] 80 50 30 Personal computer 75W Fluorecent lamp 36W Desk lamp 60 W 0,5 1,0 1,2 1,4 Height above object, z [m]
Figure 3.21 Convection flow in plume above a sedentary person in a normal environment.
10 5 3 0,3
Figure 3.20 Convection volume flow at normal room temperatures above a sedentary person and above some objects. From Mundt, 1992/Nielsen, 1993 B.
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2,5 2,0 1,5 1,0 0,5 0 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 Contamination ratio, croom /ce
Figure 3.22 Schematic illustration of the contamination distribution in a room ventilated by displacement ventilation and with warm contaminant sources.
Figure 3.23 Schematic illustration of the contamination distribution in a room ventilated by displacement ventilation, when the contaminant source (the person) is not the warmest source. The contaminant concentration is of course also influenced by the downward directed convection flows that might occur at the outer walls in cold seasons, especially when the walls are poorly insulated. These downward flows will then transport the contaminants from the upper zone back to the lower zone. However as long as there is a positive concentration gradient in the room, the contaminant concentration in the occupied zone will always be lower than by mixing ventilation. The influence of a poorly insulated roof will, in the cold season decrease the concentration gradient, due to the downfall of cold air, just like with the cold walls (See Figure 3.24). However if the roof is heated by the sun this will help stabilise the displacement ventilation as it heats the air in the upper zone. (See Figure 3.8).
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Figure 3.24 Poor building air tightness and insulation may reduce the benefit of displacement ventilation, and make it more like mixing ventilation.
or for the occupied zone: c c c = e s (3.19) coz c s where coz = the mean contaminant concentration in the occupied zone
3.10.2 Personal exposure index. Thermal flow around a person and flow generated by the movement of a person may give an inhaled concentration that is different from the concentration in head height if the measurements are made without a person.
This can be expressed by the following personal exposure index, Brohus and Nielsen (1996 A):
exp =
ce c s cexp c s
(3.20)
where cexp = the inhaled concentration. It is possible to work with a stratification height that is lower than the height of the breathing zone. The personal exposure index will often be larger than the local ventilation index because clean air is moved from the lower part of the room up to the breathing zone by the freeconvection boundary layer around the person, see Figure 3.25 and Figure 3.26.
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Figure 3.25 Thermal flow around a person may give cleaner breathing air.
0 0
1 5
2 10 15
3 20
Measurements of the personal exposure index made in situations with air movement in the occupied zone and contaminant sources close to a person can give rise to a very small exposure index, see Brohus and Nielsen (1996 B).
Flow rate
Figure 3.27 The ratio between the concentration in the breathing zone and in the ambient air at the same height (Etheridge and Sandberg, 1996)
As pointed out above, the ventilation flow rate must not always be set to cover the convection flows above the persons present in a room. Figure 3.27 shows the improvement in inhaled air quality relative to the air quality in the ambient as a function of the ventilation flow rate per person. With a ventilation flow rate of 20 l/(s,person) the border is above the person. A ventilation flow rate of 10 l/(s,person) gives however a concentration which is only 20% of the concentration in the ambient at the same level. Measurements by Mundt (1994) also showed the rapid almost instantaneous recreation of the thermal flow around a person when the person moves from one place to another in a room.
Figure 3.26 Iso-concentration map showing the dispersion pattern of a tracer gas emitted directly above a 4 W heat source in the lower zone. (Stymne et al, 1991)
Although the personal exposure index shows the ability of improved air quality in the inhaled air displacement ventilation should not be used when the contamination sources are mostly cold.
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Rehva Displacement Ventilation Guidebook Particle transportation in a displacementventilated room was studied by Mundt (2000), the results indicate that there seem to be little risk of resuspension of particles from the floor into the supply air flow. The sizes studied were however only particles larger than 0,5 m and more research is needed for smaller particles
radiators should preferably be located below the coldest elements in the room, i.e. the windows and the outer walls. The larger part of the heat emission is the radiation. The minor part is convection, which will counteract the cold downdraught from windows and cold walls.
Convectors
Convector
Figure 3.29 Convector ok when located below the cold walls or windows.
Convectors placed below windows goes well with displacement ventilation, when the heat is distributed along the cold walls/windows. One concentrated convector may case mixing of the room air.
Heating by ceiling panels Heating by ceiling panels is very suitable for displacement ventilation. In normal conditions, without heating demand, the ceiling is 3 4K warmer than the floor, yielding a heat transfer from ceiling to floor of about 20 W/m. Thus, a slight increase in ceiling temperature will provide sufficient heat for room heating. The convection part of the heat from the ceiling panels will counteract the heat loss through the ceiling.
Radiator
Using radiators is a good method for room heating with displacement ventilation. The
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Heated ceiling panels stabilises the thermal stratification, and thus benefit displacement ventilation.
Figure 3.32 Warm air supply not recommended for displacement ventilation
If the floor is too hot, it will heat the air and make it rise so that it causes mixing, at least in the lower part of the room. However, practice has shown that with a floor temperature below approximately 25C and the supply air being some 2K or more colder than the room air, the supply air spreads along the floor.
Room heating by the supply air is used to some extent to heat the rooms in the morning before personnel enter the room. When personnel has entered the room, and work starts, the heat gain from persons and equipment normally outweighs the cooling from the surroundings.
Heated floor
Heating the room by warm air is not recommended. The warm supply air will rise, and cause mixing of the room air. It may also cause short-circuiting of the ventilation air, as shown in Figure 3.4.
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5 DESIGN PROCEDURES
5.1 Summary
The design of a ventilation system should always follow a systematic procedure as follows: First, choose a suitable ventilation principle. (Displacement ventilation is not always the best for all purposes!) If displacement ventilation is chosen, calculate the required ventilation air flow rate with regard to air quality and temperature conditions. Select suitable diffusers with regard to vertical temperature distribution and adjacent zones. conditions in the most economical way (energy usage, cost efficiency). Depending on the design criteria the designer has different strategies to choose from in order to achieve specified targets. The room air conditioning design and evaluation process is illustrated in Figure 5.1.
b) Strategy The room air conditioning strategy is a fundamental scheme that describes the targeted temperature, humidity and contaminant distributions as well as air flow patterns within the air-conditioned room. The room air conditioning system consists of different methods and their controls that all together create the system performance. The system performance is evaluated by comparing the achieved conditions to the chosen strategy. Both the methods (room air distribution, exhaust, room heating and cooling, etc.) and processes and disturbances inside the room influence the resulting conditions.
TARGET OF THE TARGET OF THE INDOOR AIR CONDITIONS INDOOR AIR CONDITIONS ROOM ROOM INDOOR // OUTDOOR INDOOR OUTDOOR LOADS LOADS DISTURBANCES DISTURBANCES
a) a)
Temperature [C] Temperature [C] Humidity [%RH] Humidity [%RH] Air quality [ppm] Air quality [ppm] Investment cost [[ ]] Investment cost Running Cost [[ ]] Running Cost
b) b)
oC
oC
AIR CONDITIONING AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM PERFORMANCE SYSTEM PERFORMANCE VALUATION VALUATION AIR CONDITIONING AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM & CONTROL SYSTEM & CONTROL
c) c)
Figure 5.1 The Room Air conditioning and Evaluation Process. (Hagstrm 2000)
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Strategy
ZONING
MIXING
Description
Air quality;
Room dimension
s
, RF, c
Flow pattern controlled by low momentum supply air, strong enough to overcome disturbances
s
, RF, c
Flow pattern controlled by buoyancy
s
, RF, c
Flow pattern controlled partly by buoyancy and partly by supply air momentum
s
, RF, c
Flow pattern controlled by high momentum supply air
Main characteristics
Ventilation effectiveness
e - s oz - s
c =
ce - c s c oz - c s
Figure 5.2 The summary of the ideal room air conditioning strategies.(Hagstrm 2000)
c) System The room air distribution method is often considered as a principal parameter to apply a certain room air conditioning strategy and heating and cooling as assisting methods. However, it must be noted that in some cases a strategy can be fulfilled also without any mechanical air distribution installations using buoyancy forces. The classification of ideal room air conditioning strategies is summarized in Figure 5.2. Note that piston flow requires large amounts of air. Fitzner (1996) points out that piston flow from the floor and upwards exists for Archimedes numbers less than 360: 42
Ar =
g h < 360 T v2
(5.1)
where: g= acceleration of gravity = 9,81 m/s h= height of the room [m] = e s = temperature difference between exit and supply air [K] T= absolute temperature of the supply air [K] v= mean air velocity upwards = air volume flow/floor area [m/s] For Ar > 360, buoyancy forces will dominate, and make a thermally stratified flow.
5 DESIGN PROCEDURES
Cooled ceiling
2,5 2,0 1,5 1,0
= ratio of the cooled
= 0
1,2
1,4
Figure 5.3 Vertical air temperature distribution in a room with cooled ceiling. Temperatures relative to temp. 0,1 metre above the floor. Tan (1998) The stratification effect decreases gradually as the relative cooling load of the ceiling, , increases. When the ratio is less than about 0,6 there still is some thermal stratification in the room ( Figure 5.3). Similar type of behaviour has also been found with the contaminant stratification (Krhne 1995). This is shown in Figure 5.4.
Contamination ratio in occupied zone, coz /ce
Heat surplus per unit floor area /A = 12 W/m /A = 20 W/m /A = 30 W/m /A = 50 W/m /A = 65 - 93 W/m /A = 50 W/m
0,0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1,0
Figure 5.4 Contamination ratio in occupied space versus cooling effect from ceiling panels. (Krhne, 1995).
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5.4 Factors influencing the thermal stratification and the design methods
While the contaminant stratification level is mainly affected by the relation of supply air flow rate and convective air flow rate, thermal stratification is also affected by thermal radiation exchange between different room zones. The thermal radiation from upper zone warms up the air temperature at floor level. From this fact, it follows that if the supply air flow rate in the room is decreased which leads to an increase in the temperature stratification and in the ceiling temperature. This implies that the thermal radiation from upper zone to lower zone will also increase and thus increase the air temperature at the floor level. This in turn will decrease the temperature stratification. This process has been presented by Mundt (1996) in her doctoral thesis. When the vertical temperature gradient has reached its maximum, the temperature in the whole room will start to rise. This is demonstrated in Figure 5.5. The first displacement ventilation design
Supply air temperature, s = 17.8 C Height above floor, z [m] 2,5 2,0 1,5 1,0 0,5 0
methods applicable for manual calculations are based on the empirical coefficients, in which the influence of the thermal radiation exchange between upper and lower part of the room is built in. Such methods are presented as an example by Halton (2000) and Skistad (1994). The value of these methods is their ease of use and also the accuracy of the estimation which in many cases is still reasonable. More detailed methods allowing computational treatment of radiation exchange and situations beyond the traditional cases have been presented by Livtchak (2001) and Mundt (1996). However, these methods are iterative and too complex to be used manually, and need to be coded into software. It is also possible to use computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software to simulate large, complex spaces. However, one needs to pay special attention to description of radiation exchange and the right interpretation of boundary conditions in heat and contaminant sources and also in supply air units.
Rule-of-thumb curve
1 PM
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 Temperature, [C]
Figure 5.5 Temperature profiles measured at various times during a meeting in a room with constant supply air temperature. (Skistad 1994).
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5 DESIGN PROCEDURES
5.5.3 Design Procedure flow chart The displacement ventilation design procedure taking into account both contaminant and temperature stratification is presented as a flow chart in Figure 5.5. The application of the design procedure is demonstrated with practical examples in chapter 8. The following notes apply to the chart:
S1:
Typically stratification layer is selected slightly above the breathing zone. Take into account both ascending and descending air currents. According to (Nielsen 1993) the lower (occupied) zone concentration is 0.10,3 times the exhaust air concentration. Using a conservative estimate of 0,3 it can be checked whether the occupied zone concentration is below acceptable level. If the occupied zone concentration is higher than required, then increase the supply air flow rate accordingly. -Occupied zone temperature requirement (qmin at floor level and qmax at the edge of the occupied zone) -Maximum temperature gradient Use the comfort criteria: a) The vertical stratification is calculated by multiplying the maximum temperature gradient with the room height. b) Estimate the air temperature at the floor level using 50% rule. Use equation 3.2 This can be done for example using dimensionless temperature method that was introduced in chapter 3.3.
S2: S5:
It must be noted that the vertical stratification of the contaminants occurs only when the contaminant source is inside the warm convective current or the contaminant is lighter than air. If the heat and contaminant sources are separate there is a risk that contaminants are not carried out from the occupied zone.
5.5.2 Temperatures: Design criteria for thermal comfort The design criteria for temperature-based design are the removal of excess heat from the occupied zone and thermal comfort. Thus, the supply air flow rate is not chosen based on the convective flows but on: occupied zone temperature requirement (Minimum temperature at floor level and maximum temperature at the edge of the occupied zone) maximum vertical temperature differential within the room.
T1:
T3:
T5: T6:
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Air Quality S1 S2 S3 S4 S5
Select stratification height Determine the convective flow rates through the stratification height Choose supply air flow rate, qs = sum of convective flows Calculate the exhaust contaminant concentration, c e Evaluate the concentration in the occupied zone, coz
Temperature T1 T2
Select thermal comfort criteria Calculate the heat surplus to be removed by the ventilating air
T3
T5 T6
R1 R2 R3 R4
Check that the air flow rate is sufficient according to codes and standards. Choose the air volume flow qs with regard to temperatures, air quality and regulations. Re-calculate the vertical temperature distribution in the room, and estimate the pollutant stratification height. Select diffusers and ensure that the adjacent zones are acceptable.
Result
Figure 5.6 Displacement Ventilation Design Procedure.
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8 CASE STUDIES
8.1 Restaurant
Figure 8.1 The restaurant that shall be ventilated. The first case study is a restaurant with dense seating and both smoking and nonsmoking areas. This is a typical case where air quality is a major issue.
8.1.1 Description
Table 8.1 Data for the restaurant. Room dimensions Floor area 132,0 m Height 3,0 m Room volume 396,0 m Max. number of people in the restaurant Smokers 48 pers. Non-smokers 48 pers. Employees 6 pers. Max occupancy 102 persons Floor area per customer 1,38 m/customer The restaurant to be ventilated, shown in Figure 8.1, has a floor area of 132 m. It will accommodate a maximum of 96
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Table 8.2 Thermal comfort requirements. Temperatures in the occupied space Max. temp. 26 C Min. temp. 20 C Target temperature 23 C Maximum vertical 2,0 K/m temperature gradient The air quality demands of the restaurant owner are: it complies with the governmental regulations (*) the air quality is good the non-smokers are affected by tobacco smoke as little as possible
(*) The majority of countries have national requirements for the ventilation air flow rate per customer in restaurants.
8.1.3 Ventilation strategy In the smoking area, air quality is a major concern. Although displacement ventilation is the chosen method, by itself it may not be adequate to ensure good air quality for the non-smokers. The ventilation should be designed so that little or no air from the smoking area creeps into the non-smoking area. This can be achieved by supplying as much air as possible into the non-smoking area, and extracting air from the smoking area. The smoking zone and the building elements should be arranged so that smokecontaminated air does not infiltrate the non-smoking zone. This is illustrated in Figure 8.2.
8.1.4 Design for air quality The maximum number of people in the room is 102. Using a ventilation rate of 20 l/s per person, the ventilation flow required for contaminant stratification above the sedentary peoples heads is calculated (see chapter 3):
(4) Supply air Extract air Main air flow direction Column (unmovable)
Wardrobe
o m S
g in k
ea ar
Kitchen
(1) (2)
(5)
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Rehva Displacement Ventilation Guidebook Table 8.3 Heat gain without regard to heat accumulation in building elements. People: Lighting: Sum: 102 persons 12 lamps 85 W/person 100 W/lamp 8 670 W 65,7 W/m 1 200 W 9,1 W/m 9 870 W 74,8 W/m
For this example it is assumed that the heat accumulation in the building fabric reduces the need for air-cooling by 40%. Thus, the net requirement for cooling by the ventilation air becomes:
temperature difference between the extract and supply air is calculated as follows
= e s = 10K
A temperature-diagram for this case is shown in Figure 8.3. This gives a ventilation rate of: qs = 478 l/s ( = 1 720 m/h) Comment: The maximum temperature difference of 10C between extract and supply air is similar to that normally used for mixing ventilation. Thus, the air volume flow for removal of heat surplus will be the same for both displacement and mixing ventilation.
Extract air temperature e = 26C 50% Height above floor [m] 3,0 2,5 2,0 1,5 1,0 0,5 0 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 Supply air temperature s =16C Air temperature at floor level, f = 21C Temperature, [C] Room air temperature 1,1 ~ 23C 50%
Figure 8.3 Temperature diagram at maximum temperature difference between extract air and supply air.
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Table 8.4 Ventilation rates. Ventilation rates With respect to air quality With respect to thermal comfort National regulations Choice Air change rate: total per person per floor area qs qs/n qs/Af l/s l/s pers l/s m (m/h m) 2040 20,0 15,45 (55,6) 478 4,7 3,62 (13,0) 1020 7,73 (27,8) 10 9,3
Design air quality The CO2-emission of a seated person is about 20 l/h = 0,006 l/s (Recknagel et.al. 2001). Assuming that the CO2concentration in the supply air is cs = 350 ppm (the outdoor concentration), we can calculate the concentration in the extract air, ce. The air quality in the breathing zone will be better than in the extract air. Design temperatures With this choice of ventilation rate, the design data is shown in Table 8.6, and the temperature diagram in Figure 8.4.
Ventilation air flow rate When comparing the ventilation rate from air quality considerations and from thermal comfort considerations, the ideal flow rate of 20 l/s per person gives a very high ventilation rate, while the ventilation rate for thermal comfort is very low. A compromise of qs = 9,5 l/s per person is chosen, giving a temperature difference of 5K between supply and extract air. This provides a reasonable air quality when the restaurant is full, and a reasonable temperature difference between the supply air and the extract air. However, most of the time, the restaurant is only half full, in which case, the air flow rate will be up to 20 l/s per person. This will give excellent air quality.
Table 8.5 Design air quality for the ventilation of the restaurant. Air volume flow per person: CO2-concentration increase CO2-concentration in extract air qs/n ce - c s ce Min. vent. 10 l/s 556 ppm 906 ppm Max. vent 20 l/s 278 ppm 556 ppm
Table 8.6 Design temperatures for the ventilation of the restaurant. Air flow rate Temp. difference extract - supply Air temperature at floor level: Supply air temperature: Extract air temperature: Average vertical temp. gradient Temperature 1,1 m above floor Temp-diff. 1m - supply qs e - s 1000 5,0 22,1 20,1 25,1 0,8 23 2,9 l/s = K C C C K/m K K 3600 m/h
f s e
s
1,1m 1m- s
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Extract air temperature e = 24,5C 50% 3,0 Height above floor [m] 2,5 2,0 1,5 1,0 0,5 0 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 Supply air temperature Air temperature at Temperature, [C] Room air temperature 1,1 ~ 23C 50%
s =19,5C
Figure 8.4 Temperature diagram at the chosen ventilation rate and maximum heat gain.
8.1.7 Arrangements Location of air diffusers When locating the air diffuser, remember that many restaurants are refurbished and modified several times during the lifetime of a ventilation system. Thus, air terminal devices and ducts should be located in such a way that only minor changes are required when the room is refurbished. Moreover, the ventilation system should not require that the furniture should be kept away from those areas where a restaurant operator would find it natural to place furniture.
Units 1 and 2 Units (1) and (2) are located as shown in Figure 8.5. Two semi-circular wall units with the same diameter and width of the columns i.e. 0,7 m are installed in these locations. The unit is shown in Figure 8.6. The adjacent zone diagram for this unit is shown below. Looking at the seating plan, it can be seen that the nearest ankles are about 1,5 metres from the diffusers. From Figure 8.7 it can be seen that more than 350 l/s can be supplied from each unit. To allow for some margin of safety, choose qs = 320 l/s from each of unit1 and unit 2 Some seats are closer than 1,5 metres from diffuser no.2. To protect these seats from draughts, partitions are placed between them and diffuser 2. This is shown in Figure 8.8.
The air diffusers are located beside two columns (pos 1 and pos 2 in Figure 8.2) and in the passage outside the door between the kitchen and the restaurant (pos 3 in Figure 8.2). There will probably be no seating in these areas, so that the adjacent zone can be large, if necessary. Diffusers have not been placed along the walls, because they would be too close to some of the seats.
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(1)
(2)
63
oz - s = 3 K
Figure 8.8 Partitions between the diffuser and the closest seats protecting the customers from draughts.
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Unit 3 For unit 3, the available space is shown in Figure 8.9. The front surface area is 2,5 metres wide and 1,25 metres high. The distance from the diffuser to the ankles of the nearest customers is about 1,5 metres. In this space two plane units were installed as shown in Figure 8.10. The dimensions of this unit are: height = 1,2 m, width = 1,1 m and depth 0,3 m.
The length of the adjacent zone for an under-temperature of 3K is shown in Figure 8.11 as a function of the supply volume flow. For an adjacent zone of 1,5 metres, each unit supplies approximately 180 l/s. Two units are placed at this location, giving total supply airflow of 360 l/s.
2,5m 1,25 m
1,5 m
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B = 1 m, H = 1,2 m W = 0,3 m
oz - s = 3 K
qs,2 = 330 l/s (2) (3) Threshold below ceiling qs,3 = 330 l/s
A total of 1000 l/s is extracted from the room. More air is extracted from the smoking zone than from the non-smoking zone, to prevent smoke drifting into the non-smoking area. In addition, a threshold is put below the ceiling between the two zones. Its location is shown in Figure 8.12. Also, see Figure 8.13 below.
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9 REFERENCES
Alamdari, F (1998). Displacement Ventilation and Cooled Ceilings. Proceedings of Roomvent '98, Stockholm. Bach, H et al 1993. Gezielte belftung der Arbeitsbereiche in produktionshallen zum Abbau der Schadstoffbelstung. Forschungsbericht HLK-1-92 ISSN 0943013 X. Batchelor, G.K. 1954 Heat convection and buoyancy effects in fluids. Quart. J. Roy. Met. Soc. 80, pp. 339-358. Brohus, H. and Nielsen, P. V. (1996 A), Personal Exposure in Displacement Ventilated Rooms. In: Indoor Air: International Journal of Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Vol. 6, No. 3. - pp 157-167. Brohus H (1998), Influence of the cooled ceiling on indoor air quality in a displacement ventilated space examined by means of computational fluid dynamics. Proceedings of Roomvent '98, Stockholm. Brohus, H. and Nielsen, P. V. (1996 B), CFD Models of Persons Evaluated by FullScale Wind Channel Experiments. In: ROOMVENT96. Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Air Distribution in Rooms, Yokohama, Japan, July 17-19, 1996 / Murakami, S. (ed.). Vol. 2, pp. 137-144. Brohus, H and Ryberg, H. (1999)The Kappa Model a Simple Model for the Approximate Determination of Vertical Temperature Distribution in Rooms. Department of Building Technology and Structural Engineering, Aalborg University. Brouns, C., Waters, B.: A guide to contaminant removal effectiveness. Technical note AIVC 28:2, AIVC, 1991. Butler, D. (2002), Air conditioning using displacement ventilation to maximise free cooling. BRE, UK. To be published. CEN Report, 1997: CR 12792 Ventilation for buildings - Terminology, symbols and units. (revised and completed version expected to be upgraded into European Standard by year 2002) CEN Report, 1998: CR 1752 Design criteria for indoor environment. Elterman, V.M. 1980. Ventilation of Chemical Plants. Moscow: KHIMIA. Etheridge, D., Sandberg, M. 1996. Building Ventilation - Theory and Measurement, Wiley. Fitzner, K. 1991. Quellftung in Theorie und Praxis, Japanisches Journal fr Heizungs- und Klimatechnik, Heft 1, 1994; und CCI, Heft 5, 1991 Fitzner, K. 1996. Displacement ventilation and cooled ceilings, results of laboratory tests and practical installations Proc. Indoor Air 1996, Nagoya. Fitzner, K. 2001. Private communications. Goodfellow, Howard and Esko Thti (2001). Industrial Ventilation Design Guidebook. Academic Press, 2001, 1520 pages. Halton OY (2000). Displacement Ventilation Design Guide, 01.2000
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Rehva Displacement Ventilation Guidebook Vol. 3, pp. 323-330. 01-3. ISBN: 4-924557Recknagel, Sprenger and Schramek (Taschenbuch fr Heizung und Klimatechnik 01/02 ISBN 3-486-26450-8. Schmidt, W. 1941. Turbulente Ausbreitung eines Stromes erhitzer Luft ZAMM. Bd. 21 #5. Skistad, H. 1994. Displacement Ventilation. Research Studies Press, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., West Sussex. UK. Skret, E. 2000. Ventilasjonsteknisk handbok. Hndbok 48, Norges Byggforskningsinstitutt. ISBN 82-536-0714-8. Stymne, H., Sandberg, M., Mattsson, M.: Dispersion pattern of contaminants in a displacement ventilated room- implications for demand control. 12th AIVC conference, Ottawa, Canada, 1991. Sutcliffe, H.: A guide to air change efficiency. Technical note AIVC 28, AIVC, 1990. Tan H, Murata T, Aoki K, Kurabuchi T (1998). Cooled ceilings / displacement ventilation hybrid air conditioning system Design Criteria. Proceedings of Roomvent '98, Stockholm. Tapola (1983). Dimensioning and control of Displacement ventilation in Industrial Premises: Ministry of Trade and industry. Energy department, serie D:173, Helsinki 1983. Turner, J.S. (1973), Buoyancy effects in fluids. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0 521 08623 X. Zeldovitch, Y.B. 1937. Fundamental Principles for Free Convective Plumes. Journal of the Experimental and Technical Physics. Vol.7(12). Moscow.
Nielsen, P.V., 1994(A), Velocity Distribution in a Room with Displacement Ventilation and Low-Level Diffusers. International Report, IEA Annex 20, Aalborg University. Nielsen, P. V., 1994 (B), Stratified Flow in a Room with Displacement Ventilation and Wall-Mounted Air Terminal Devices. ASHRAE transaction, Vol. 100, Part 1. Nielsen, P.V., 1993 (A). Air Distribution in Rooms - Room Air Movement and Ventilation Effectiveness. International Symposium on Room Convection and Ventilation Effectiveness, ISRACVE, ASHRAE. Tokyo. Nielsen, P.V. ,1993 (B). Displacement Ventilation - Theory and Design, Aalborg university. ISSN 0902-8002 U9306. Nielsen, P.V. , 1992, Velocity Distribution in the Flow from a Wall-Mounted Diffuser in Rooms with Displacement Ventilation. Presented at ROOMVENT'92. Third Int. Conf. on Air Distribution in Rooms, Aalborg, Denmark. Nielsen, P.V. , L. Hoff and L. G. Pedersen (1988), Displacement Ventilation by Different Types of Diffusers. 9th AIVC Conference on Effective Ventilation, Ghent, Belgium. Nordtest method, Air Terminal Devices: Aerodynamic Testing and Rating at Low Velocity, NT VVS 083:A, ISSN 02837226, Finland, 2002. Popiolec, Z. 1981. Problems of testing and mathematical modeling of plumes above human body and other extensive heat sources. A4-serien no. 54, Inst. fr Uppv.o Vent. teknik, KTH, Stockholm.
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