MC0067 Database Management System Set-1

Question 1. Write about: 1. Linear Search 2. Collision Chain

ANS. Linear Search Linear search, also known as sequential search, means starting at the beginning of the data and checking each item in turn until either the desired item is found or the end of the data is reached. Linear search is a search algorithm, also known as sequential search that is suitable for searching a list of data for a particular value. It operates by checking every element of a list one at a time in sequence until a match is found. The Linear Search, or sequential search, is simply examining each element in a list one by one until the desired element is found. The Linear Search is not very efficient. If the item of data to be found is at the end of the list, then all previous items must be read and checked before the item that matches the search criteria is found. This is a very straightforward loop comparing every element in the array with the key. As soon as an equal value is found, it returns. If the loop finishes without finding a match, the search failed and -1 is returned. For small arrays, linear search is a good solution because it's so straightforward. In an array of a million elements linear search on average will take500, 000 comparisons to find the key. For a much faster search, take a look at binary search. Algorithm For each item in the database if the item matches the wanted info exit with this item Continue loop wanted item is not in database
Collision Chain: In computer science, a hash table or hash map is a data structure that uses a hash function to map identifying values, known as keys (e.g., a person's name), to their associated values (e.g., their telephone number). Thus, a hash table implements an associate array. The hash function is used to transform the key into the index (the hash) of an array element (the slot or bucket) where the corresponding value is to be sought. Ideally, the hash function should map each possible key to a unique slot index, but this ideal is rarely achievable in practice (unless the hash keys are fixed; i.e. new entries are never added to the table after it is created). Instead, most hash table designs assume that hast collisionsdifferent keys that map to the same hash valuewill occur and must be accommodated in some way. 2. Write about:

ANS.

2.1 Integrity Rules:

These are the rules which a relational database follows in order to stay accurate and accessible. These rules govern which operations can be performed on the data and on the structure of the database. There are three integrity rules defined for a relational databse,which are:-

Distinct Rows in a Table - this rule says that all the rows of a table should be distinct to avoid in ambiguity while accessing the rows of that table. Most of the modern database management systems can be configured to avoid duplicate rows. Entity Integrity (A Primary Key or part of it cannot be null) - this rule says that 'null' is special value in a relational database and it doesn't mean blank or zero. It means the unavailability of data and hence a 'null' primary key would not be a complete identifier. This integrity rule is also termed as entity integirty. Referential Integrity - this rule says that if a foreign key is defined on a table then a value matching that foreign key value must exist as th e primary key of a row in some other table. The following are the integrity rules to be satisfied by any relation. No Component of the Primary Key can be null. The Database must not contain any unmatched Foreign Key values. This is called the referential integrity rule. Unlike the case of Primary Keys, there is no integrity rule saying that no component of the foreign key can be null. This can be logically explained with the help of the following example: Consider the relations Employee and Account as given below.

2.2 Relational Operators: In the relational model, the database objects seen so far have specific names: Name Meaning Relation Table Tuple Record(Row) Attribute Field(Column) Cardinality Number of Records(Rows) Degree(or Arity) Number of Fields(Columns) View Query/Answer table On these objects, a set of operators (relational operators) is provided to manipulate them: 1. Restrict 2. Project 3. Union 4. Difference 5. Product 6. Intersection 7. Join 8. Divide Restrict: Restrict simply extract records from a table. it is also known as Select, but not the same SELECT as defined in SQL. Project: Project selects zero or more fields from a table and generates a new table

that contains all of the records and only the selected fields (with no duplications). Union: Union creates a new table by adding the records of one table to another tables, must be compatible: have the same number of fields and each of the field pairs has to have values in the same domain. Difference: The difference of two tables is a third table which contains the records which appear in the first BUT NOT in the second. Product: The product of two tables is a third which contains all of the records in the first one added to each of the records in the second. Intersection: The intersection of two tables is a third tables which contains the records which are common to both. Join: The join of two tables is a third which contains all of the records in the first and the second which are related. Divide: Dividing a table by another table gives all the records in the first which have values in their fields matching ALL the records in the second. The eight relational algebra operators are 1. SELECT To retrieve specific tuples/rows from a relation.

2. PROJECT To retrieve specific attributes/columns from a relation.

3. PRODUCT To obtain all possible combination of tuples from two relations.

4. UNION To retrieve tuples appearing in either or both the relations participating in the UNION.

Eg: Consider the relation Ord_Jul as follows (Table: Ord_Jul) Note: The union operation shown above logically implies retrieval of records of Orders placed in July or in August 5. INTERSECT To retrieve tuples appearing in both the relations participating in the INTERSECT.

Eg: To retrieve Cust# of Customers whove placed orders in July and in August Cust# 003 6. DIFFERENCE To retrieve tuples appearing in the first relation participating in the DIFFERENCE but not the second.

Eg: To retrieve Cust# of Customers whove placed orders in July but not in August Cust# 001 7. JOIN To retrieve combinations of tuples in two relations based on a common field in both the relations.

Eg: ORD_AUG join CUSTOMERS (here, the common column is Cust#)

3. Write about:

Three Level Database Architecture

Data and Related Structures
Data are actually stored as bits, or numbers and strings, but it is difficult to work with data at this level.

It is necessary to view data at different levels of abstraction. Schema:

Description of data at some level. Each level has its own schema.

We will be concerned with three forms of schemas:

physical, conceptual, and external

Physical Data Level

The physical schema describes details of how data is stored: files, indices, etc. on the random access disk system. It also typically describes the record layout of files and type of files (hash, b-tree, flat). Early applications worked at this level - explicitly dealt with details. E.g., minimizing physical distances between related data and organizing the data structures within the file (blocked records, linked lists of blocks, etc.) Problem:

Routines are hardcoded to deal with physical representation. Changes to data structures are difficult to make. Application code becomes complex since it must deal with details. Rapid implementation of new features very difficult.

Conceptual Data Level

Also referred to as the Logical level Hides details of the physical level.

In the relational model, the conceptual schema presents data as a set of tables.

The DBMS maps data access between the conceptual to physical schemas automatically.

Physical schema can be changed without changing application: DBMS must change mapping from conceptual to physical. Referred to as physical data independence.

External Data Level

In the relational model, the external schema also presents data as a set of relations. An external schema specifies a view of the data in terms of the conceptual level. It is tailored to the needs of a particular category of users. Portions of stored data should not be seen by some users and begins to implement a level of security and simplifies the view for these users Examples:

Students should not see faculty salaries. Faculty should not see billing or payment data.

Information that can be derived from stored data might be viewed as if it were stored.

GPA not stored, calculated when needed.

Applications are written in terms of an external schema. The external view is computed when accessed. It is not stored. Different external schemas can be provided to different categories of users. Translation from external level to conceptual level is done automatically by DBMS at run time. The conceptual schema can be changed without changing application:

Mapping from external to conceptual must be changed. Referred to as conceptual data independence.

DBMS SERVICE
Jump to: navigation, search DBMS_SERVICE is a PL/SQL package that can be used to define and manage database services for a single instance. To define a RAC service (multi-instance) see svrctl. Please note that services can also be defined from the DBCA GUI.

Functions
[edit] dbms_service.CREATE_SERVICE
SQL> exec dbms_service.CREATE_SERVICE(SERVICE_NAME=>'orderentry', NETWORK_NAME=>'db11g')

[edit] dbms_service.MODIFY_SERVICE

Modify an existing service. Example:

SQL> exec DBMS_SERVICE.MODIFY_SERVICE( > service_name => 'o11gr1', > goal => DBMS_SERVICE.GOAL_THROUGHPUT, > failover_method => DBMS_SERVICE.FAILOVER_METHOD_BASIC, > failover_type => DBMS_SERVICE.FAILOVER_TYPE_SELECT, > failover_retries => 10, > failover_delay => 1, > clb_goal => DBMS_SERVICE.CLB_GOAL_LONG); PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

[edit] dbms_service.START_SERVICE
SQL> exec dbms_service.START_SERVICE('orderentry') SQL> show parameter service

[edit] dbms_service.STOP_SERVICE
SQL> exec dbms_service.STOP_SERVICE('orderentry')

[edit] dbms_service.DELETE_SERVICE
SQL> exec dbms_service.DELETE_SERVICE('orderentry')

[edit] Monitor
Use the following dictionary views to monitor services:

dba_services - All defined services gv$active_services - All active (started) services

To see what service a session is connected to:

SELECT username, program, machine, service_name FROM gv$session;

Q. 4 explain the SQL syntax for :

1. Table Creation with constraint imposing using an example

Ans.

2. Functions Count, Sum, Average with appropriate examples

Ans.

Five Important aggregate functions are COUNT, SUM, AVG, MIN, and MAX. They are called aggregate functions because they summarize the results of a query, rather than listing all of the rows.

1. COUNT (*) gives the number of rows satisfying the conditions 2. SUM () gives the total of all the rows, satisfying any conditions, of the given column, where the given column is numeric. 3. AVG () gives the average of the given column. 4. MIN () gives the smallest figure in the given column. 5. MAX () gives the largest figure in the given column.

1. COUNT (*)

The keyword COUNT can be used together to count the number of distinct results. Syntax :SELECT COUNT (column) FROM table EXAMPLE:-

With this "Persons" Table: NAME Varsha Ranjan Devi This example finds the number of persons with a value in the "Age" filled in the "Persons" table: SELECT COUNT (Age) FROM Persons RESULT:2 The COUNT (column) function is handy for finding columns without a value. Note that the result is one less than the number of rows in the original table because one of the persons does not have an age value stored. AGE 34 45

2. SUM ()

The SUM function returns the total sum of a column in a given selection. NULL values are not included in the calculation. Syntax :-

SELECT SUM (column) FROM table EXAMPLE I :-

With this "Persons" Table: NAME Varsha Ranjan Devi AGE 34 45 19

This example returns the sum of all ages in the "person" table: SELECT SUM (Age) FROM Persons RESULTS:98

EXAMPLE II :This example returns the sum of ages for persons that are more than 20 years old: SELECT SUM(Age) FROM Persons WHERE Age>20 RESULT:79 3. AVG ()

The AVG function returns the average value of a column in a selection. NULL values are not included in the calculation.

Syntax :SELECT AVG (column) FROM table

EXAMPLE I :This example returns the average age of the persons in the "Persons" table: SELECT AVG(Age) FROM Persons

Q. 5. Compare and Contrast the Centralized and Client / Server Architecture for DBMS.
Ans In centralized database systems, the database system, application programs, and user-

interface all are executed on a single system and dummy terminals are connected to it. The processing power of single system is utilized and dummy terminals are used only to display the information. As the personal computers became faster, more powerful, and cheaper, the database system started to exploit the available processing power of the system at the users side, which led to the development of client/server architecture. Disadvantages of centralized database system::
o o

When the central site computer or database system goes down, then everyone is blocked from using the system until the system comes back. Communication costs from the terminals to the central site can be expensive.

In client/server architecture, the processing power of the computer system at the users end is utilized by processing the user-interface on that system. A client is a computer system that sends request to the server connected to the network, and a server is a computer system that receives the request, processes it, and returns the requested information back to the client. Client and server are usually present at different sites. The end users (remote database users) work on client computer system and database system runs on the server. Servers can be of several types, for example, file servers, printer servers, web servers, database servers, etc. The client machines have user interfaces that help users to utilize the servers. It also provides users the local processing power to run local applications on the client side. There are two approaches to implement client/server architecture. In the first approach, the user interface and application programs are placed on the client side and the database system on the server side. This architecture is called two-tier architecture. The application programs that reside at the client side invoke the DBMS at the server side. The application program

interface standards like Open Database Connectivity (ODBC) and Java Database Connectivity (JDBC) are used for interaction between client and server. Figure 1.9 shows two-tier architecture.

Fig. 1.9. Two-tier architecture

The second approach, that is, three-tier architecture is primarily used for web-based applications. It adds intermediate layer known as application server (or web server) between the client and the database server. The client communicates with the application server, which in turn communicates with the database server. The application server stores the business rules (procedures and constraints) used for accessing data from database server. It checks the clients credentials before forwarding a request to database server. Hence, it improves database security. When a client requests for information, the application server accepts the request, processes it, and sends corresponding database commands to database server. The database server sends the result back to application server which is converted into GUI format and presented to the client. Figure 1.10 shows the three-tier architecture.

Fig. 1.10. Three-tier architecture

ADVANTAGES: 1. CLIENT / SERVER system has less expensive platforms to support applications that had previously been running only on large and expensive mini or main frame computers. 2. Client/ server environment facilities in more productive work by the users and making better use of existing data. 3. It is more flexible as compared to the centralized systems. 4. Responsive time 7 throughput is high. 5. A single dg(on server) can be shared across several distinct client (application) system. DISADVANTAGE: 1. Programming cost is high in client / server environment, particularly in initial phases. 2. Theres a lack of management tools for diagnosis, performance monitoring and tuning and security control, for the DBMS client and OS and networking environments. Q. 6 Taking an example Enterprise System, List out the Entity types, Entity Sets, Attributes
and Keys

Ans Q7

Ans Relational Notation

Relational notation is a process of transforming an E/R diagram into a more friendly and usable type of daigram that is easily readalbe. This can be done by taking the names of each table and its attributes and ordering them in a specific order. You always start with the primary key(s), which are always underlined. Next all other attributes are added. The only rule for attributes is if it happens to be a foreign key it needs to be underlined with a dashed line:

Diagram 1

Looking at this E/R diagram to translate this into relational notation it would look like: AUTHOR (Author_id, Author_lname, Author_fname, Address, City, State, Zip) Note: the primary key in the table is underlined to show that it is the unique attribute.

Diagram2
Relational Notation: TITLE (Title_id, Title, Pub_id)

Note: in this example the attribute Pub_id is what is known as a foreign key because it links to the following table (PUBLISHER) through that attribute. Normally this is represented by being placed at the end of the attribute list in the relational notation and is shown with a dashed underline.

Diagram 3

Relational Notation: PUBLISHER (Pub_id, Pub_name, City)

Diagram 4

Relational Notation: AUTHOR_TITLE (Author_id, Title_id)

By translating E/R diagrams into relational notation it also makes it easy for an individual to normalize and denormalize any given table in the schema; and if needed it is not very complicated to restore relational notation back to E/R diagram format.

Relational notation is a shorthand way to represent E/R diagrams. It is a half-way step between an abstract tool and an implementation specific tool (SQL create table commands).

In terms of cardinalities, if you have a 1:1 (one-to-one) relationship between two tables you can place the foreign key on either side when translating to relational notation, but is dependant upon the context of the scope of what the prolect is requiring.. If you are presented with a 1:N (one-to-many) relationship between tables foreign keys always will be on the many side.

When dealing with suptype/supertype, they are considered a special form of a 1:1 therefore foreign key placement is immaterial, due to the fact that subtypes are know as inheriting everything from a supertype unless other wise noted.

Advantages
One of the best advantages of relational notation format is the ease to go from an E/R diagram to an English format of notation rather easily. What this means is, it very easy to turn an E/R diagram into something easily readable and useable, and still capture table names, composite keys, primary keys, foreign keys, and all attributes.. Relational notation is also a great refference point when creating tables in a SQL type program. Relational notion still allows a user or designer an easy way to transfer dependencies and re-create composite keys in a graphical interface if so desired. It is also has an accepted format, which once learned, can be applied to any table structure.

Disadvantages
One disadvantage of the relational notation is lack of visual descriptiveness. Essentially, tables created by relationships and tables themselves lose a visual format to model them. This can however be an advantage too though.

Q 8. Consider a University Database System and develop the ER Conceptual Schema diagram i.e. E-R Diagram for the same Ans....