Training Detail

Course details: Embedded technology and Linux programming. Joining date: Trainer: Location: Company: Duration: Timing: Contact: D-108 Sec-2 Noida. www.cmcltd.com/ent/center.asp (0120) 4310313. Noida. ATC CMC Ltd. 6 Months.

About CMC LTD:

CMC Limited is a leading systems engineering and integration company in India, offering application design, development, testing services and asset-based solutions in niche segments through turnkey projects of national importance. CMC has also been expanding its service presence in international markets offering off-shoring advantages and delivering value through service level-based and project scope-based deliveries. Since its inception on December 26, 1975, CMC has been a frontrunner in providing IT solutions and services. CMC was the first ever enterprise in India to set up a countrywide data network called INDONET - a computer network providing access to major cities in India, way back in 1985. A subsidiary of Tata Consultancy Services Limited (TCS Ltd), one of the world's leading information technology consulting, services and business process outsourcing organizations, CMC Limited is a part of the US$70 billion Tata Group, India's best known business conglomerate. Today, CMC Limited, an ISO 9001:2000, certified and CMMI Level V accredited organization, is positioned as a premier IT solutions provider in the fast growing and competitive IT market. We execute large and complex turnkey projects, and have built, managed and supported our customers' IT systems across the value chain infrastructure, applications and business processes. A few highlights of our business Over 7,300 employees spread across India, USA, UK, Europe, MEA & APAC

2,000+ experts in technologies & domain for Application Development Practice 700 strong skilled force in Embedded Systems 11 Development Centres across India and USA Experience in setting up large ODCs up to 300+ team

CMC has 18 offices in major Indian cities and over 150 service locations. We have a sizable resource pool of engineers trained in diverse technologies, with vast domain knowledge and varied skill sets. We conduct significant research into emerging technologies and competence areas at our state-of-the-art, ISO 9001 certified R&D Centre in Hyderabad, India. This gives us an edge in complex, high technology projects. CMC over the years has followed a multi-dimensional approach to support its growth and expansion in becoming a global player.

Together with Tata Consultancy Services Limited (TCS Ltd), our strategic partner, we are working to target the global market with additional offerings that leverage our combined strengths and enable us to follow common best practices. CMC's wholly owned subsidiary, CMC Americas Inc, was acquired in 1991 and formerly called Baton Rouge International (BRI), before being renamed in 2003. With 9 offices in USA and servicing customers across the country, it drives CMC's thrust towards globalisation and business development in USA. In addition to the following, CMC Americas Inc also maintains offices in Austin, TX; Los Angeles, CA; Sunnyvale, CA; Atlanta, Georgia; Baton Rouge, LA; Novi, MI; Edison, NJ; Reston, VA and Burlington, MA. CMC Informatics UK is the branch office of CMC Limited in the United Kingdom and covers the territories of UK, Ireland and Europe. The office is based in the historic city of Guildford in Surrey, one of richest counties in the UK. CMC's products for transport, law enforcement, banking and insurance verticals, and services in embedded technologies, IT Consultancy and Infrastructure Development Management and Outsourcing are offered through this office. The London Underground Limited (LUL), Forth Ports and TRW are a few of our well known clients. CMC Dubai is the branch office of CMC in West Asia and serves as a front end for CMC's thrust towards globalisation, especially in terms of business development in the Middle East and Africa. The Dubai office handles large projects for important clients like the National Bank of Bahrain and Syrian Railways. In Africa, the Tanzania Police is also handled from this office.

History:
CMC was incorporated on December 26, 1975, as the 'Computer Maintenance Corporation Private Limited'. The Government of India held 100 per cent of the equity share capital. On August 19, 1977, it was converted into a public limited company. In 1978, when IBM wound up its operations in India, CMC took over the maintenance of IBM installations at over 800 locations around India and, subsequently, maintenance of computers supplied by other foreign manufacturers as well. Taking over the activities of IBM in India, including many of its employees, helped the company to imbibe a serviceoriented culture. This is demonstrated by our long-standing customer associations and our ability to provide high-quality and reliable service.

In 1980, we perceived the need for total IT system solutions in India, and acquired a 'solutions' orientation. We aligned our focus with the government's thrust on IT development activities. A significant milestone in our transition from a hardware maintenance company to a complete end-to-end IT solutions provider was 'Project Interact' (International Education and Research for Applications of Computer Technology), a UN project involving design, development and systems-engineering of real-time, computer-based systems dedicated to applications in the areas of power distribution, railway freight operations management, and meteorology. As we evolved along the value chain, CMC forayed into systems integration, interfacing, installation, commissioning, software development, as well as education and training, on a national basis. Our R&D facility was set up in 1982, to undertake competency development in niche areas in the frontiers of technology, to provide us the cutting edge. Today, our R&D facility is housed in our Hyderabad campus, and develops advanced solutions in areas such as real-time systems, embedded systems and pervasive computing. To reflect our diversified business activities, we renamed ourselves 'CMC Limited', and obtained a fresh certificate of incorporation dated August 27, 1984. Following a spurt in the global demand for IT services in the early 1990s, particularly in the United States, we decided to expand our operations and market our product and service offerings in these markets. Towards this end, in 1991, we acquired Baton Rouge International Inc, USA (it was subsequently renamed CMC Americas, Inc, in 2003), one of the first cross-border acquisitions by an Indian IT firm. In 1992, the Indian government divested 16.69 per cent of CMC's equity to the General Insurance Corporation of India and its subsidiaries who, in turn, sold part of their stake to the

public in 1996. In 1993, CMC's shares were listed on the Hyderabad Stock Exchange and the Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE). To service and develop our clientele in the UK and Europe, we opened a branch office in London, in 2000. The next year, the government divested 51 per cent of CMC's equity to Tata Sons Ltd, through a strategic sale, and CMC became a part of the Tata group. In line with our strategy of offering our products and services globally, in 2003, we opened a branch office in Dubai to tap the hitherto unexplored markets of West Asia and Africa. In 2004, the government divested its remaining 26.5 per cent stake in CMC to the public.

Modules Covered in Training:

C Programming language. Microcontroller 8051 Programming. Linux Internals. System Programming. Project.

C Language Programming

Starting Date: Completing Date: Topics Covered:

Introduction. Application. Control flow. Conditional & decision statement. Functions. MACROS. Pointers Structures Union File handling. Link list. Stack & ques. Trees. Programs.

C language programming:

Introduction:
C language is widely used in the development of operating systems. An Operating System(OS) is a software(collection of programs) that controls the various functions of a computer. Also it makes other programs on your computer work. For example, you cannot work with a word processor program, such as Microsoft Word, if there is no operating system installed on your computer. Windows, Unix, Linux, Solaris, and MacOS are some of the popular operating systems.

Where is C useful?
Cs ability to communicate directly with hardware makes it a powerful choice for system programmers. In fact, popular operating systems such as Unix and Linux are written entirely in C. Additionally, even compilers and interpreters for other languages such as FORTRAN, Pascal, and BASIC are written in C. However, Cs scope is not just limited to developing system programs. It is also used to develop any kind of application, including complex business ones. The following is a partial list of areas where C language is used:

Embedded Systems Systems Programming Artificial Intelligence Industrial Automation Computer Graphics Space Research Image Processing Game Programming

What kind of language is C?

C is a structured programming language, which means that it allows you to develop programs using well-defined control structures (you will learn aboutcontrol structures in the articles to come), and provides modularity (breaking the task into multiple sub tasks that are simple enough to understand and to reuse). C is often called a middlelevel language because it combines the best elements of low-level or machine language with high-level languages.

Control Flow:

In computer science, control flow (or alternatively, flow of control) refers to the order in which the individual statements, instructions, or function calls of an imperative or a declarativeprogram are executed or evaluated. Within an imperative programming language, a control flow statement is a statement whose execution results in a choice being made as to which of two or more paths should be followed. For non-strict functional languages, functions and language constructs exist to achieve the same result, but they are not necessarily called control flow statements. The kinds of control flow statements supported by different languages vary, but can be categorized by their effect:

continuation at a different statement (unconditional branch or jump),

executing a set of statements only if some condition is met (choice - i.e. conditional branch), executing a set of statements zero or more times, until some condition is met (i.e. loop - the same as conditional branch), executing a set of distant statements, after which the flow of control usually returns (subroutines, coroutines, and continuations), stopping the program, preventing any further execution (unconditional halt).

Conditional & decision statement:

conditional statements, conditional expressions and conditional constructs are features of a programming language which perform different computations or actions depending on whether a programmer-specified boolean condition evaluates to true or false. Apart from the case of branch predication, this is always achieved by selectively altering the control flow based on some condition. In imperative programming languages, the term "conditional statement" is usually used, whereas in functional programming, the terms "conditional expression" or "conditional construct" are preferred, because these terms all have distinct meanings. Although dynamic dispatch is not usually classified as a conditional construct, it is another way to select between alternatives at runtime.

If-then(-else)
The if-then construct (sometimes called if-then-else) is common across many programming languages. Although the syntax varies quite a bit from language to language, the basic structure (in pseudocode form) looks like this: (The example is actually perfectly valid Visual Basic or QuickBASIC syntax.)

Else if
By using Else If, it is possible to combine several conditions. Only the statements following the first condition that is found to be true will be executed. All other statements will be skipped. The statements of the final Else will be executed if none of the conditions are true. This example is written in the Ada language:

If expressions
Many languages support if expressions, which are similar to if statements, but return a value as a result. Thus, they are true expressions (which evaluate to a value), not statements (which just perform an action). As a ternary operator Main article: ?: In C and C-like languages conditional expressions take the form of a ternary operator called the conditional expression operator, ?:, which follows this template: (condition)?(evaluate if condition was true):(evaluate if condition was false)

Case and switch statements

Switch statements (in some languages, case statements) compare a given value with specified constants and take action according to the first constant to match. The example on the left is written in Pascal, and the example on the right is written in C.

Functions:
Functions are used in c for the following reasons, Function definition, Types of functions, Functions with no arguments and no return values, Functions with arguments but no return values, Functions with arguments and return values, Return value data type of function and Void functions.

A function is a complete and independent program which is used (or invoked) by the main program or other subprograms. A subprogram receives values called arguments from a calling program, performs calculations and returns the results to the calling program. There are many advantages in using functions in a program they are: 1. It facilitates top down modular programming. In this programming style, the high level logic of the overall problem is solved first while the details of each lower level functions is addressed later. 2. the length of the source program can be reduced by using functions at appropriate places. This factor is critical with microcomputers where memory space is limited. 3. It is easy to locate and isolate a faulty function for further investigation. 4. A function may be used by many other programs this means that a c programmer can build on what others have already done, instead of starting over from scratch. 5. A program can be used to avoid rewriting the same sequence of code at two or more locations in a program. This is especially useful if the code involved is long or complicated. 6. Programming teams does a large percentage of programming. If the program is divided into subprograms, each subprogram can be written by one or two team members of the team rather than having the whole team to work on the complex program

Types of functions:
A function may belong to any one of the following categories: 1. Functions with no arguments and no return values. 2. Functions with arguments and no return values. 3. Functions with arguments and return values.

MACROS:
Preprocessing expands macros in all lines that are not preprocessor directives (lines that do not have a # as the first non-white-space character) and in parts of some directives that are not skipped as part of a conditional compilation. "Conditional compilation" directives allow you to suppress compilation of parts of a source file by testing a constant expression or identifier to determine which text blocks are passed on to the compiler and which text blocks are removed from the source file during preprocessing. The #define directive is typically used to associate meaningful identifiers with constants, keywords, and commonly used statements or expressions. Identifiers that represent constants are sometimes called "symbolic constants" or "manifest constants." Identifiers that represent statements or expressions are called "macros." In this preprocessor documentation, only the term "macro" is used. When the name of the macro is recognized in the program source text or in the arguments of certain other preprocessor commands, it is treated as a call to that macro. The macro name is replaced by a copy of the macro body. If the macro accepts arguments, the actual arguments following the macro name are substituted for formal parameters in the macro

body. The process of replacing a macro call with the processed copy of the body is called "expansion" of the macro call.

Pointers:
In C language, a pointer is a variable that points to or references a memory location in which data is stored. Each memory cell in the computer has an address which can be used to access its location. A pointer variable points to a memory location. By making use of pointer, we can access and change the contents of the memory location.

Pointer declaration:
A pointer variable contains the memory location of another variable. You begin the declaration of a pointer by specifying the type of data stored in the location identified by the pointer. The asterisk tells the compiler that you are creating a pointer variable. Finally you give the name of the pointer variable. The pointer declaration syntax is as shown below. type * variable name Example: int *ptr; float *string;

Address operator:
Once we declare a pointer variable, we point the variable to another variable. We can do this by assigning the address of the variable to the pointer as in the following example: ptr=# The above declaration places the memory address of num variable into the pointer variable ptr. If num is stored in memory 21260 address then the pointer variable ptr will contain the memory address value 21260.

Pointers and function:

The pointer are very much used in a function declaration. Sometimes only with a pointer a complex function can be easily represented and success. The usage of the pointers in a function definition may be classified into two groups. 1. Call by reference 2. Call by value.

Call by value:
We have seen that a function is invoked there will be a link established between the formal and actual parameters. A temporary storage is created where the value of actual parameters is stored. The formal parameters picks up its value from storage area the mechanism of data transfer between actual and formal parameters allows the actual parameters mechanism of data transfer is referred as call by value. The corresponding formal parameter represents a

local variable in the called function. The current value of corresponding actual parameter becomes the initial value of formal parameter. The value of formal parameter may be changed in the body of the actual parameter. The value of formal parameter may be changed in the body of the subprogram by assignment or input statements. This will not change the value of actual parameters.

Call by Reference:
When we pass address to a function the parameters receiving the address should be pointers. The process of calling a function by using pointers to pass the address of the variable is known as call by reference. The function which is called by reference can change the values of the variable used in the call.

Pointer to arrays:
An array is actually very much like pointer. We can declare the arrays first element as a[0] or as int *a because a[0] is an address and *a is also an address the form of declaration is equivalent. The difference is pointer is a variable and can appear on the left of the assignment operator that is lvalue. The array name is constant and cannot appear as the left side of assignment operator. Strings are characters arrays and here last element is arrays and pointers to char arrays can be used to perform a number of string functions.

Pointers and structures:

We know the name of an array stands for the address of its zeroth element the same concept applies for names of arrays of structures. Suppose item is an array variable of struct type. Consider the following declaration: struct products { char name[30]; int manufac; float net; item[2],*ptr; this statement declares item as array of two elements, each type struct products and ptr as a pointer data objects of type struct products, the assignment ptr=item; would assign the address of zeroth element to product[0]. Its members can be accessed by using the following notation. ptr->name; ptr->manufac; ptr->net; The symbol -> is called arrow pointer and is made up of minus sign and greater than sign. Note that ptr-> is simple another way of writing product[0]. When the pointer is

incremented by one it is made to pint to next record ie item[1]. The following statement will print the values of members of all the elements of the product array.

Pointers on pointer:
While pointers provide enormous power and flexibility to the programmers, they may use cause manufactures if it not properly handled. Consider the following precautions using pointers to prevent errors. We should make sure that we know where each pointer is pointing in a program. Here are some general observations and common errors that might be useful to remember. A pointer contains garbage until it is initialized. Since compilers cannot detect uninitialized or wrongly initialized pointers, the errors may not be known until we execute the program remember that even if we are able to locate a wrong result, it may not provide any evidence for us to suspect problems in the pointers. The abundance of c operators is another cause of confusion that leads to errors. For example the expressions such as *ptr++, *p[],(ptr).member etc should be carefully used. A proper understanding of the precedence and associativity rules should be carefully used.

Structures and Unions

In this tutorial you will learn about C Programming - Structures and Unions, Giving values to members, Initializing structure, Functions and structures, Passing structure to elements to functions, Passing entire function to functions, Arrays of structure, Structure within a structure and Union. Arrays are used to store large set of data and manipulate them but the disadvantage is that all the elements stored in an array are to be of the same data type. If we need to use a collection of different data type items it is not possible using an array. When we require using a collection of different data items of different data types we can use a structure. Structure is a method of packing data of different types. A structure is a convenient method of handling a group of related data items of different data types. Structures do not occupy any memory until it is associated with the structure variable such as book1. the template is terminated with a semicolon. While the entire declaration is considered as a statement, each member is declared independently for its name and type in a separate statement inside the template. The tag name such as lib_books can be used to declare structure variables of its data type later in the program. A structure is usually defines before main along with macro definitions. In such cases the structure assumes global status and all the functions can access the structure.

Functions and structures:

We can pass structures as arguments to functions. Unlike array names however, which always point to the start of the array, structure names are not pointers. As a result, when we change structure parameter inside a function, we dont effect its corresponding argument.

Arrays of structure:

It is possible to define a array of structures for example if we are maintaining information of all the students in the college and if 100 students are studying in the college. We need to use an array than single variables. An array of structures can be assigned initial values just as any other array can. Remember that each element is a structure that must be assigned corresponding initial values .

Union:
Unions like structure contain members whose individual data types may differ from one another. However the members that compose a union all share the same storage area within the computers memory where as each member within a structure is assigned its own unique storage area. Thus unions are used to conserve memory. They are useful for application involving multiple members. Where values need not be assigned to all the members at any one time. Like structures union can be declared using the keyword union This declares a variable code of type union item. The union contains three members each with a different data type. However we can use only one of them at a time. This is because if only one location is allocated for union variable irrespective of size. The compiler allocates a piece of storage that is large enough to access a union member we can use the same syntax that we use to access structure members are all valid member variables. During accessing we should make sure that we are accessing the member whose value is currently stored.

File handling:
In any programming language it is vital to learn file handling techniques. Many applications will at some point involve accessing folders and files on the hard drive. In C, a stream is associated with a file. Special functions have been designed for handling file operations. Some of them will be discussed in this chapter. The header file stdio.h is required for using these functions.

Opening a file:
Before we perform any operations on a file, we need to identify the file to the system and open it. We do this by using a file pointer. The type FILE defined in stdio.h allows us to define a file pointer. Then you use the function fopen() for opening a file. Once this is done one can read or write to the file using the fread() or fwrite() functions, respectively. The fclose() function is used to explicitly close any opened file.

Stack & queue:

In this section, we introduce two closely-related data types for manipulating arbitrarily large collections of objects: the stackand the queue. Each is defined by two basic operations: insert a new item, and remove an item. When we insert an item, our intent is clear. But when we remove an item, which one do we choose? The rule used for a queue is to always remove the item that has been in the collection the mostamount of time. This policy is known as first-in-first-out or FIFO. The rule used for a stack is to always remove the item that has been in the collection the least amount of time. This policy is known as last-in first-out or LIFO.

Pushdown stacks.
A pushdown stack (or just a stack) is a collection that is based on the last-in-first-out (LIFO) policy. When you click a hyperlink, your browser displays the new page (and inserts it onto a stack). You can keep clicking on hyperlinks to visit new pages. You can always revisit the previous page by clicking the back button (remove it from a stack). The last-in-first-out policy offered by a pushdown stack provides just the behavior that you expect.

By tradition, we name the stack insert method push() and the stack remove operation pop(). We also include a method to test whether the stack is empty. The following API summarizes the operations:

The asterisk indicates that we will be considering more than one implementation of this API.

Linked lists.
For classes such as stacks that implement collections of objects, an important objective is to ensure that the amount of space used is always proportional to the number of items in the collection. Now we consider the use of a fundamental data structure known as a linked list that can provide implementations of collections (and, in particular, stacks) that achieves this important objective.

A linked list is a recursive data structure defined as follows: a linked list is either empty (null) or a reference to a node having a reference to a linked list. The node in this definition is an abstract entity that might hold any kind of data in addition to the node reference that characterizes its role in building linked lists. With object-oriented programming, implementing linked lists is not difficult. We start with a simple example of a class for the node abstraction: A Node has two instance variables: a String and a Node. The String is a placeholder in this example for any data that we might want to structure with a linked list (we can use any set of instance variables); the instance variable of type Node characterizes the linked nature of the data structure. Now, from the recursive definition, we can represent a linked list by a variable of type Node just by ensuring that its value is either null or a reference to a Node whose next field is a reference to a linked list.

Queue.
A queue supports the insert and remove operations using a FIFO discipline. By convention, we name the queue insert operation enqueue and the remove operation dequeue. Lincoln tunnel. Student has tasks that must be completed. Put on a queue. Do the tasks in the same order that they arrive.

1.

Linked list implementation. Program Queue.java implements a FIFO queue of strings using a linked list. Like Stack, we maintain a referencefirst to the least-recently added Node on the queue. For efficiency, we also maintain a reference last to the least-recently added Node on the queue.

2.

Array implementation. Similar to array implementation of stack, but a little trickier since need to wrap-around. Program DoublingQueue.javaimplements the queue interface. The array is dynamically resized using repeated doubling.

Trees:
Tree structures support various basic dynamic set operations including Search Predecessor Successor, Minimum, Maximum, Insert, and Delete in time proportional to the height of the tree. Ideally, a tree will be balanced and the height will be log n where n is the number of nodes in the tree. To ensure that the height of the tree is as small as possible and therefore provide the best running time, a balanced tree structure like a red-black tree, AVL tree, or btree must be used. When working with large sets of data, it is often not possible or desirable to maintain the entire structure in primary storage (RAM). Instead, a relatively small portion of the data structure is maintained in primary storage, and additional data is read from secondary storage as needed. Unfortunately, a magnetic disk, the most common form of secondary storage, is significantly slower than random access memory (RAM). In fact, the system often spends more time retrieving data than actually processing data. B-trees are balanced trees that are optimized for situations when part or all of the tree must be maintained in secondary storage such as a magnetic disk. Since disk accesses are expensive (time consuming) operations, a b-tree tries to minimize the number of disk

accesses. For example, a b-tree with a height of 2 and a branching factor of 1001 can store over one billion keys but requires at most two disk accesses to search for any node .

The Structure of B-Trees

Unlike a binary-tree, each node of a b-tree may have a variable number of keys and children. The keys are stored in non-decreasing order. Each key has an associated child that is the root of a subtree containing all nodes with keys less than or equal to the key but greater than the preceeding key. A node also has an additional rightmost child that is the root for a subtree containing all keys greater than any keys in the node. A b-tree has a minumum number of allowable children for each node known as the minimization factor. If t is this minimization factor, every node must have at least t - 1 keys. Under certain circumstances, the root node is allowed to violate this property by having fewer than t - 1 keys. Every node may have at most 2t - 1 keys or, equivalently, 2t children. Since each node tends to have a large branching factor (a large number of children), it is typically neccessary to traverse relatively few nodes before locating the desired key. If access to each node requires a disk access, then a b-tree will minimize the number of disk accesses required. The minimzation factor is usually chosen so that the total size of each node corresponds to a multiple of the block size of the underlying storage device. This choice simplifies and optimizes disk access. Consequently, a b-tree is an ideal data structure for situations where all data cannot reside in primary storage and accesses to secondary storage are comparatively expensive (or time consuming).

Height of B-Trees
For n greater than or equal to one, the height of an n-key b-tree T of height h with a minimum degree t greater than or equal to 2,

PROGRAMMES:1. /*Program to find armstrong number between 1 to N.*/

int main() { int n = 0, remainder, sum = 0, i = 0, noDigits = 0, isArm = 0; char ch[60] = {0}; printf("Find the Arm Strong Numbers between 1 to N"); scanf("%d", &n); for(i = 1; i<n; i++) { isArm = i; itoa(isArm, ch, 10); noDigits = strlen(ch); while(isArm) { remainder = isArm%10; isArm=isArm/10; sum= sum+pow(remainder, noDigits); } if(sum == i) printf("\nArm Strong Nos are %d\n", i); sum = noDigits = 0; } } 2. /*Program using array.*/ #include <stdio.h> char input[1000]; float temp; int num_count; float total; float average; int main() { printf("I will find the average of however many numbers you enter.\n"); printf("Enter number now (00 to quit): ");

fgets(input, sizeof(input), stdin); temp = atof(input); num_count = 0; total = 0.0; average = 0.0; while ( temp != 00.0 ) { ++num_count; total += temp; printf("Enter next number now (00 to quit): "); fgets(input, sizeof(input), stdin); temp = atof(input); } average = ( total / num_count ); printf("You entered %d numbers. The average of those numbers is %f.\n", num_count, average); return 0; }

3.

/*Program using array.*/

#include<stdio.h> Int i,j,m; for(i=0;i<m;i++) /*A*/ for(j=0;j<i;j++) /*B*/ { x=a[i][j]; a[i][j]=a[j][i]; a[j][i]=x; } I think A and B need a change : /*Permutation : */ for ( i = 0 ; i <= lig ; i++ ) /*A*/ for ( j = 0 ; j <= i ; j++ ) /*B*/ { int permut = MatA[i][j] ; MatA[i][j] = MatA[j][i] ;

MatA[j][i] = permut ; } /*End of permutation */ printf("\nDISPLAY MATRIX : \n") ; for ( i = 0 ; i < col ; i++ ) { for ( j = 0 ; j < lig ; j++ ) { printf("%d", MatA[i][j]) ; } printf("\n") ; }

4.

/*Program to find factorial of a no.*/ #include<stdio.h> void main()

{ int i,fact=1,n; printf("\nEnter the no of terms ="); scanf("%d",&n); for(i=1;i<=n;i++) fact*=i; printf("\nFactorial value for %d terms = %d",n,fact); getch(); } 5. /*Program using function.*/

#include<stdio.h> int fabo(int); void main() { int result=0,a=1,b=1,c; printf("enter upto which you want to generate the series"); scanf("%d",&c); result=fabo(c); printf("%d\n%d\n",a,b); printf("the fabonnaci series is %d\n",result); getch(); } int fabo(int n) { if (n==1);

return 1; else if(n==2); return 1; else return fabo(n-1)+fabo(n-2); }

6. /*Program using function.*/ #include<stdio.h> void main() { int a=2,b=3; swap(a,b); printf("%d%d",a,b); getch() } swap(int *x,int *y) { int t; t=*x; *x=*y; *y=t; printf("%d%d",x,y); } 7. /*Program to find palindrome.*/

#include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> void main() { int first,last,flag=1; char str[100]; clrscr(); printf("Enter number to get to check wheather palindrome or not"); gets(str); first=0; last=strlen(str)-1; printf("%d",first); printf("%d",last); while(first<=last)

{ if(str[first]!=str[last]) flag=0; first++; last--; } if(flag==1) { clrscr(); printf("this is palindrome"); getch(); } else { clrscr(); printf("sorry this is not a palindrome"); getch(); } } 8. /*Program using pointer.*/

#include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> void main() { int i,p, *no,factorial,summ; int fact(int p); int sum(int p); int fib(int p); clrscr(); printf("\n Enter The Number:"); scanf("%d",no); printf("\n The Fibonnacci series: \n"); for(i=0;i<*no;i++) printf("%d\n",fib(i)); factorial=fact(*no); printf("\n The factorial of %d: %d\n", *no,factorial); summ=sum(*no);printf("\nThe summation of %d: %d\n", *no,summ); getch(); }int fib(int p) { if(p==0) return(0); if(p>=1&&p<=2) return(1);

else return(fib(p-1)+fib(p-2)); }int fact(int p) { if(p==0) return(1); else return(p*fact(p-1)); }int sum(int p) { if(p==0) return(0); else return(p+sum(p-1))

9.

/*Program using pointer.*/

#include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> void bubblesort(int*[],int); void main() { int i,n,a[100]; clrscr(); printf("\n Enter the number of elements:"); scanf("%d",&n); printf("\n Enter the array elements"); for(i=0;i<n;i++) scanf("%d",&a[i]); printf("\nUNSORTED ARRAY ELEMENTS"); for(i=0;i<n;i++) printf("\t%d",a[i]); bubblesort(a,n); printf("\nSORTED ARRAY"); for(i=0;i<n;i++) printf("\t%d",*(a+i)); getch(); }void bubblesort(int* b[],int n) { int i,j,t; for(i=0;i<n;i++) { for(j=i+1;j<n;j++) {

if(b[i]>b[j]) { t=b[i]; b[i]=b[j]; b[j]=t; } }

}

10.

/*program to accept a string & display*/

#include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> char string(char str2[10]); void main() { int i; char str1[10]; clrscr(); printf("\n\nEnter the string\t"); for(i=0;i<=9;i++) { scanf("%c",&str1[i]); }string(str1); getch(); }char string(char str2[10]) { int j; printf("\n\nThe string is\t"); for(j=0;j<=9;j++) { printf("%c",str2[j]); }return 1; } 11. Program to accept a string and display in reverse using functions/arrays and pointers*/

#include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> #include<string.h>

char reverse(char *p); void main() { int i; char str[10]; clrscr(); printf("\n\nEnter the String\t"); gets(str); reverse(str); getch(); } char reverse(char *p) { int j,l; l=strlen(p); printf("\n\nString in reverse is \t"); for(j=l-1;j>=0;j--) { printf("%c",p[j]); }return 1; }

12.

/*Program using structure.*/

#include <stdio.h> /* User defined types */ enum deptcode {sales,personnel,packing,engineering}; typedef enum deptcode DEPT; struct person { int age, salary; DEPT department; char name[12]; char address[6][20]; }; typedef struct person EMPLOYEE; void read_line(char Str[]) { int i = 0; char next; while ((next=getchar())!='\n') { Str[i] = next; i++; } Str[i] = 0; /* Set the null char at the end */ } void print_employee(EMPLOYEE Emp) { int i; printf(" %d %d %d\n",Emp.age,Emp.salary,Emp.department); printf("%s\n",Emp.name); for (i=0;i<=5;i++) printf("%s\n",Emp.address[i]); } void main () { EMPLOYEE This_Employee; int i; scanf("%d",&This_Employee.age); scanf("%d",&This_Employee.salary); scanf("%d\n",&This_Employee.department); read_line(This_Employee.name); for (i=0; i<=5; i++) read_line(This_Employee.address[i]); print_employee(This_Employee); }

13.

/*Program on Nested Structure.*/

#include "stdio.h" #include "conio.h" struct adress { char ct[10]; char dist[10],state[5]; long int pin; }; struct emp { char name[10]; int age,sal; struct adress a; }; void main() { struct emp e[2]; int i; clrscr(); for(i=0;i<=1;i++) { printf("Enter [%d]st Employee's Name,Age,salary :: ", i); scanf("%s%d%d",e[i].name,&e[i].age,&e[i].sal); printf("\nEnter city, district,state & pincode ::"); scanf("%s%s%s%ld",e[i].a.ct,e[i].a.dist,e[i].a.state,&e[i].a.pin); } for(i=0;i<=1;i++) { printf("\n[%d]st Employee's Name :: %s",i,e[i].name); printf("\n[%d]st Employee's Age :: %d ",i,e[i].age); printf("\n[%d]st Employee's Salary :: %d",i,e[i].sal); printf("\n[%d]st Employee's City :: %s ",i,e[i].a.ct); printf("\n[%d]st Employee's District :: %s",i,e[i].a.dist); printf("\n[%d]st Employee's State :: %s",i,e[i].a.state); printf("\n[%d]st Employee's Pin :: %ld",i,e[i].a.pin); } getch(); } 14. /*Program using structure.*/

#include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h>

struct in_addr { unsigned long s_addr; }; struct sockaddr_in { short int sin_family; unsigned short sin_port; struct in_addr sin_addr; char sin_zero[8]; }; int bind(int sockfd, struct sockaddr *my_addr, int length); int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { printf("Socket Programming example!\n"); struct sockaddr_in sin; sin.sin_family = 123; sin.sin_port = 7000; sin.sin_addr.s_addr = 1921; printf("sin_family: %d\n", sin.sin_family); printf("sin_port: %d\n", sin.sin_port); printf("sin_addr: %lu\n", sin.sin_addr.s_addr); return EXIT_SUCCESS; } int bind(int sockfd, struct sockaddr *my_addr, int length) { printf("\nsockfd: %d\n", sockfd); printf("sin_family: %d\n", my_addr.sin_family); printf("sin_port: %d\n", my_addr.sin_port); printf("sin_address: %lu\n", my_addr.sin_addr.s_addr); int result = bind(100, (struct sockaddr*) &sin, 29); return 1; }

15.

/*Program using union.*/ typedef union { float coords[3]; char about[20]; } assocdata;

typedef struct { char *descript; int un_type; assocdata alsostuff; } leaf; int main() { leaf oak[3]; int i; printf ("Hello World\n"); for (i=0; i<3; i++) { oak[i].descript = "A Greeting"; oak[i].un_type = 1; oak[i].alsostuff.coords[0] = 3.14; } oak[2].alsostuff.about[2] = 'X'; for (i=0; i<3; i++) { printf("%s\n",oak[i].descript); printf("%5.2f\n",oak[i].alsostuff.coords[0]); } } 16. /*Program using link list.*/

typedef struct nd { int info; struct nd*link; } node; /* AFTER CREATING LINK LIST */ node*reverse(node *h)

{ node *H=NULL *p; while(h!=NULL) { p=h; /* insert value of 1st node into p */ h=h->next; p->next=H; /* insert p->next =NULL because H is equals to NULL (1st time) */ H=p; /* insert address of p into H */ } return H; } 17. /*Program using link list.*/ #include<stdio.h> #include<stdlib.h> struct list { int month; struct list *next; }; typedef struct list node; void init(node* record) { record->next=NULL; } void addnode(node* record int d) { node* fresh; fresh=(node *)malloc(sizeof(node)); fresh->month=d; fresh->next=record->next; record->next=fresh; } void print(node *record)

{ node* temp; temp=(node *)malloc(sizeof(node)); for(temp=record->next;temp;temp=temp->next) printf(" d" temp->month); } node* reverse_recurse(node* cur node* start)/*reverse linked list recursively*/ { if(cur->next==NULL) { start->next=cur; return cur; } else { reverse_recurse(cur->next start)->next=cur; } return cur; } int main(void) { node* start; start=(node *)malloc(sizeof(node)); init(start); int i=0; for(i=20;i>=0;i--) addnode(start i);

Introduction to Microcontroller and Its Interfacing

Starting Date: Completing Date: Topics Covered: 8051 Architecture. Instruction set. Pin diagram. Addressing modes. TimersInterrupts & interrupt handling. Basic communication protocols. Interfacing of motor,keyboard,lcd,led,7 segment. Programming of microcontroller on assembly and C language. Introduction to KEIL Uvision programming software. Top view simulator. Smart draw software. Proteus Simulator. Programs.

Introduction to microcontroller and its interfacing

8051 Architecture: Block Diagram and Pin Diagram:

Instruction set:

ACALL - Absolute Call ADD, ADDC - Add Accumulator (With Carry) AJMP - Absolute Jump ANL - Bitwise AND CJNE - Compare and Jump if Not Equal CLR - Clear Register CPL - Complement Register DA - Decimal Adjust DEC - Decrement Register DIV - Divide Accumulator by B DJNZ - Decrement Register and Jump if Not Zero

INC - Increment Register JB - Jump if Bit Set JBC - Jump if Bit Set and Clear Bit JC - Jump if Carry Set JMP - Jump to Address JNB - Jump if Bit Not Set JNC - Jump if Carry Not Set JNZ - Jump if Accumulator Not Zero JZ - Jump if Accumulator Zero LCALL - Long Call LJMP - Long Jump MOV - Move Memory MOVC - Move Code Memory MOVX - Move Extended Memory MUL - Multiply Accumulator by B NOP - No Operation ORL - Bitwise OR POP - Pop Value From Stack PUSH - Push Value Onto Stack RET - Return From Subroutine RETI - Return From Interrupt RL - Rotate Accumulator Left RLC - Rotate Accumulator Left Through Carry RR - Rotate Accumulator Right RRC - Rotate Accumulator Right Through Carry SETB - Set Bit SJMP - Short Jump SUBB - Subtract From Accumulator With Borrow SWAP - Swap Accumulator Nibbles XCH - Exchange Bytes XCHD - Exchange Digits XRL - Bitwise Exclusive OR Undefined - Undefined Instruction

An "addressing mode" refers to how you are addressing a given memory location. In summary, the addressing modes are as follows, with an example of each: Immediate Addressing MOV A,#20h Direct Addressing MOV A,30h Indirect Addressing MOV A,@R0 External Direct MOVX A,@DPTR Code Indirect MOVC A,@A+DPTR

Timers Interrupts & interrupt handling:

What is an Interrupt? The interrupts refer to a notification, communicated to the controller, by a hardware device or software, on receipt of which controller momentarily stops and responds to the interrupt. Whenever an interrupt occurs the controller completes the execution of the current instruction and starts the execution of anInterrupt Service Routine (ISR) or Interrupt Handler. ISR is a piece of code that tells the processor or controller what to do when the interrupt occurs. After the execution of ISR, controller returns back to the instruction it has jumped from (before the interrupt was received). Why need interrupts An application built around microcontrollers generally has the following structure. It takes input from devices like keypad, ADC etc; processes the input using certain algorithm; and generates an output which is either displayed using devices like seven segment, LCD or used further to operate other devices like motors etc. In such designs, controllers interact with the inbuilt devices like timers and other interfaced peripherals like sensors, serial port etc. The programmer needs to monitor their status regularly like whether the sensor is giving output, whether a signal has been received or transmitted, whether timer has finished counting, or if an interfaced device needs service from the controller, and so on. This state of continuous monitoring is known as polling. In polling, the microcontroller keeps checking the status of other devices; and while doing so it does no other operation and consumes all its processing time for monitoring. This problem can be addressed by using interrupts. In interrupt method, the controller responds to only when an interruption occurs. Thus in interrupt method, controller is not required to regularly monitor the status (flags, signals etc.) of interfaced and inbuilt devices. Hardware and Software interrupt The interrupts in a controller can be either hardware or software. If the interrupts are generated by the controllers inbuilt devices, like timer interrupts; or by the interfaced devices, they are called the hardware interrupts. If the interrupts are generated by a piece of code, they are termed as software interrupts. Multiple interrupts What would happen if multiple interrupts are received by a microcontroller at the same instant? In such a case, the controller assigns priorities to the interrupts. Thus the interrupt with the highest priority is served first. However the priority of interrupts can be changed configuring the appropriate registers in the code. 8051 Interrupts

The 8051 controller has six hardware interrupts of which five are available to the programmer. These are as follows:

1. RESET interrupt - This is also known as Power on Reset (POR). When the RESET interrupt is received, the controller restarts executing code from 0000H location. This is an interrupt which is not available to or, better to say, need not be available to the programmer. 2. Timer interrupts - Each Timer is associated with a Timer interrupt. A timer interrupt notifies the microcontroller that the corresponding Timer has finished counting. 3. External interrupts - There are two external interrupts EX0 and EX1 to serve external devices. Both these interrupts are active low. In AT89C51, P3.2 (INT0) and P3.3 (INT1) pins are available for external interrupts 0 and 1 respectively. An external interrupt notifies the microcontroller that an external device needs its service. 4. Serial interrupt - This interrupt is used for serial communication. When enabled, it notifies the controller whether a byte has been received or transmitted. How is an interrupt serviced? Every interrupt is assigned a fixed memory area inside the processor/controller. The Interrupt Vector Table (IVT) holds the starting address of the memory area assigned to it (corresponding to every interrupt). When an interrupt is received, the controller stops after executing the current instruction. It transfers the content of program counter into stack. It also stores the current status of the interrupts internally but not on stack. After this, it jumps to the memory location specified by Interrupt Vector Table (IVT). After that the code written on that memory area gets executed. This code is known as the Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) or interrupt handler. ISR is a code written by the programmer to handle or service the interrupt. Programming Interrupts While programming interrupts, first thing to do is to specify the microcontroller which interrupts must be served. This is done by configuring the Interrupt Enable (IE) register which enables or disables the various available interrupts. The Interrupt Enable register has following bits to enable/disable the hardware interrupts of the 8051 controller.

To enable any of the interrupts, first the EA bit must be set to 1. After that the bits corresponding to the desired interrupts are enabled. ET0, ET1 and ET2 bits are used to enable the Timer Interrupts 0, 1 and 2, respectively. In AT89C51, there are only two timers, so ET2 is not used. EX0 and EX1 are used to enable the external interrupts 0 and 1. ES is used for serial interrupt. EA bit acts as a lock bit. If any of the interrupt bits are enabled but EA bit is not set, the interrupt will not function. By default all the interrupts are in disabled mode. Setting the bits of IE register is necessary and sufficient to enable the interrupts. Next step is to specify the controller what to do when an interrupt occurs. This is done by writing a subroutine or function for the interrupt. This is the ISR and gets automatically called when an interrupt occurs. It is not required to call the Interrupt Subroutine explicitly in the code. 1. Programming Timer Interrupts The timer interrupts IT0 and IT1 are related to Timers 0 and 1, respectively. (Please refer 8051 Timers for details on Timer registers and modes.) The interrupt programming for timers involves following steps : 1. Configure TMOD register to select timer(s) and its/their mode. 2. Load initial values in THx and TLx for mode 0 and 1; or in THx only for mode 2. 3. Enable Timer Interrupt by configuring bits of IE register. 4. Start timer by setting timer run bit TRx. 5. Write subroutine for Timer Interrupt. The interrupt number is 1 for Timer0 and 3 for Timer1. Note that it is not required to clear timer flag TFx. 6. To stop the timer, clear TRx in the end of subroutine. Otherwise it will restart from 0000H in case of modes 0 or 1 and from initial values in case of mode 2. 7. If the Timer has to run again and again, it is required to reload initial values within the routine itself (in case of mode 0 and 1). Otherwise after one cycle timer will start counting from 0000H. 2. Programming External Interrupts The external interrupts are the interrupts received from the (external) devices interfaced with the microcontroller. They are received at INTx pins of the controller. These can be level triggered or edge triggered. In level triggered, interrupt is enabled for a low at INTx pin; while in case of edge triggering, interrupt is enabled for a high to low transition at INTx pin. The edge or level trigger is decided by the TCON register. The TCON register has following bits: Setting the IT0 and IT1 bits make the external interrupt 0 and 1 edge triggered respectively. By default these bits are cleared and so external interrupt is level triggered. Note : For a level trigger interrupt, the INTx pin must remain low until the start of the ISR and should return to high before the end of ISR. If the low at INTx pin goes high before the start of ISR, interrupt will not be generated. Also if the INTx pin remains low even after the end of ISR, the interrupt will be generated once again. This is the reason why level trig-

1. 2.

ger interrupt (low) at INTx pin must be four machine cycles long and not greater than or smaller than this. Following are the steps for using external interrupt : Enable external interrupt by configuring IE register. Write routine for external interrupt. The interrupt number is 0 for EX0 and 2 for EX1 respectively. 3. Programming Serial Interrupt To use the serial interrupt the ES bit along with the EA bit is set. Whenever one byte of data is sent or received, the serial interrupt is generated and the TI or RI flag goes high. Here, the TI or RI flag needs to be cleared explicitly in the interrupt routine (written for the Serial Interrupt). The programming of the Serial Interrupt involves the following steps: Enable the Serial Interrupt (configure the IE register). Configure SCON register. Write routine or function for the Serial Interrupt. The interrupt number is 4. Clear the RI or TI flag within the routine. Programming multiple interrupts Multiple interrupts can be enabled by setting more than one interrupts in the IE register. If more than one interrupts occur at the same time, the interrupts will be serviced in order of their priority. By default the interrupts have the following priorities in descending order: The priority of the interrupts can be changed by programming the bits of Interrupt Priority (IP) register. The IP register has the following bit configuration: First two MSBs are reserved. The remaining bits are the priority bits for the available interrupts. Setting a particular bit in IP register makes the corresponding interrupt of the higher priority. For example, IP = 0x08; will make Timer1 priority higher. So the interrupt priority order will change as follows (in descending order): More than one bit in IP register can also be set. In such a case, the higher priority interrupts will follow the sequence as they follow in default case. For example, IP = 0x0A; will make Timer0 and Timer1 priorities higher. So the interrupt priority order will change as follows (in descending order):

1. 2. 3. 4.

Serial Communication Protocols:

Distributed systems require protocols for communication between microcontrollers. Controller Area Networks (CAN) and Serial Peripheral Interfaces (SPI) are two of the most common such protocols. The beauty of using multiple processors in a single system is that the timing requirements of one processor can be divorced from the timing requirements of the other. In a real-time system, this quality can make the programming a lot easier and reduce the potential for race

conditions. The price you pay is that you then have to get information from one processor to the other. If you use one fast processor instead of two slow ones, passing information from one part of the software to another may be as simple as passing parameters to a function or storing the data in a global location. However, when the pieces of software that need to communicate are located on different processors, you have to figure out how to bundle the information into a packet and pass it across some sort of link. In this article, we'll look at two standard protocols, SPI and CAN, that can be used to communicate between processors, and also at some of the issues that arise in designing ad hoc protocols for small systems. Controller Area Network (CAN) Controller Area Network (CAN) is a multi-drop bus protocol, so it can support many communicating nodes. 1 The advantages are obvious. The disadvantage of moving to more than two nodes is that you now require some addressing mechanism to indicate who sent a message, and who should receive it. The CAN protocol is based on two signals shared by all nodes on the network. The CAN_High and CAN_Low signals provide a differential signal and allow collision detection. If both lines go high, two different nodes must be trying to drive two different signals, and one will then back off and allow the other to continue. CAN is used in almost every automobile manufactured in Europe. In the U.S., CAN is popular in factory automation, where the DeviceNet protocol uses CAN as its lower layer. The biggest difference between CAN and SPI is that the CAN protocol defines packets. In SPI (and serial interfaces in general), only the transmission of a byte is fully defined. Given a mechanism for byte transfer, software can provide a packet layer, but no standard size or type exists for a serial packet. Since packet transfer is standardized for CAN, it's usually implemented in hardware. Implementing packets, including checksums and backoff-andretry mechanisms, in hardware hides a whole family of low-level design issues from the software engineer. The program can place a packet in a CAN controller's buffer and not worry about interacting with the CAN hardware until the packet is sent or an entire packet has been received. The same level of control could be built into a serial controller, but unless it was standardized, that controller could only communicate with peers of the same type.

A CAN packet consists of an identifier that comprises either 11 bits or 29 bits and 8 bytes of data, along with a few other pieces of housekeeping like the checksum. The identifier is not defined by the CAN protocol, but higher level protocols can describe how the identifier can be divided into source, destination, priority, and type information. You could also define these bits yourself if you don't have to share the bus with devices outside of your control. When controlling transmission byte by byte, you usually have to combine a number of bytes to say anything meaningful, except in cases as trivial as the thermistor example discussed earlier. However, in eight bytes you can express commands, report on parameter values, or pass calibration results. For debugging purposes, communicating from a microcontroller to a PC is straightforward. By snooping the CAN bus from the PC, you can monitor the communications between the microcontrollers in the system, or you can imitate one side of the conversation by inserting test messages. A product called USBcan from Kvaser provides an interface to the CAN bus through the PC's USB port. A number of other companies offer similar products, but what I found impressive about Kvaser was the quality of the software libraries available. The CANlib library provides an API for building and receiving CAN packets. The company also provides a version of the library compiled for my favorite PC development environment, Borland C++ Builder, which enabled me to build a nice GUI that showed all bus activity. The same program can be used for calibration, inserting text messages, and even downloading a new version of software to the device. Each Kvaser product, whether ISA, PCI, PCMCIA or USB-based, has a driver. Once the driver is installed, the applications built using Kvaser's libraries will work directly with that device. So, if I develop on a PC with a PCI card, I can still deploy my test software to a field engineer with a laptop and a PCMCIA card. Since the application I was working on was automotive, it was ideal to be able to send someone into a vehicle with a laptop. One of my few gripes with the supplied software is that it only supports the mainstream versions of Windows. Linux drivers would have been welcome, but Kvaser does not support it. (Open source drivers are available for some of the Kvaser ISA boards at the Linux CAN Project homepage.) 2

One of the most useful drivers from Kvaser is a virtual driver that doesn't require a CAN hardware interface. This allows one PC application to communicate with other PC applications running CAN software without any CAN hardware. You can therefore develop and test a PC program to communicate over the CAN bus without requiring any CAN hardware, as long as you write another PC test program to listen to whatever the first program is saying. This is useful if there isn't enough hardware to provide a system to each developer or if the prototype target is not yet available. Higher layer protocols There are a number of higher layer protocols that have been layered on top of the basic CAN specifications . These include SAE J1939, DeviceNet, and CANOpen. 3, 4, 5 The emphasis of these protocols is to define the meaning of the identifier and to encourage interoperability between CAN-based solutions from different vendors. Each standard has established a foothold in a different application domain. If your system is closed, that is, if all nodes on the bus will be products from your company, then implementing one of the standard higher level protocols is probably unnecessary. However, examining these standards may give you ideas for some of the features that you might want to implement. For example, SAE J1939 includes a connection-oriented mechanism, which is suitable when transferring blocks of data larger than eight bytes. The standard defines a handshaking message to set up the connection and then a system of counting segments to ensure that the receiver will detect any missing packets. Some higher level protocols define messages for particular application domains, such as a message that is sent when a car's brakes are engaged. In theory, this means that you can develop a device that integrates with your in-car electronics. In practice, the exact workings of the engine management CAN bus on any vehicle are a closely guarded secret. The CAN standards are not a ticket in; you still need the manufacturer's cooperation.

Introduction to KEIL Uvision programming software:

Third-Party Utilities extend the functions and capabilities of Vision.

Keil PK51 is a complete software development environment for classic and extended 8051 microcontrollers. Like all Keil tools, it is easy to learn and use.

RTX Real-Time Kernels enables the development of real-time software.

The Keil 8051 Development Tools are designed to solve the complex problems facing embedded software developers. 1) When starting a new project, simply select the microcontroller you use from the Device Database and the Vision IDE sets all compiler, assembler, linker, and memory options for you. 2) Numerous example programs are included to help you get started with the most popular embedded 8051 devices. 3) The Keil Vision Debugger accurately simulates on-chip peripherals (IC, CAN, UART, SPI, Interrupts, I/O Ports, A/D Converter, D/A Converter, and PWM Modules) of your 8051 device. Simulation helps you understand hardware configurations and avoids time wasted on setup problems. Additionally, with simulation, you can write and test applications before target hardware is available. 4) When you are ready to begin testing your software application with target hardware, use the MON51, MON390, MONADI, or FlashMON51 Target Monitors, the ISD51 In-System Debugger, or the ULINK USB-JTAG Adapter to download and test program code on your target system.

Top view simulator:

Topview Simulator gives an excellent simulation environment for the industry's most popular 8 bit Microcontroller family, MCS 51. It gives required facilities to enable the system designers to start projects right from the scratch and finish them with ease and confidence.

It is the total simulation solution giving many state of art features meeting the needs of the designers possessing different levels of expertise. If you are a beginner, then you can learn about 8051 based embedded solutions without any hardware. If you are an experienced designer, you may find most of the required facilities built in the simulator that enabling you to complete your next project without waiting for the target hardware. The features of the simulator is briefly tabulated here for your reference: Finished Real Time Projects. Project - 8 Channel Sequential Controller with LED Displays.

Project - 8 Channel Sequential Controller - LCD Display

Project - Programmable Timer with 2X16 LCD Display

Device Selection A wide range of device selection, including Generic 8031 devices and Atmel's AT89CXX series 8051 microcontrollers. Program Editing Powerful editing feature for generating your programs both in C and Assembly level and the facility to call an external Compiler / Assembler (Keil / SDCC Compilers) to process input programs. Clearview Clearview facility gives all the internal architectural details in multiple windows. Information about the Program, Data Memory, register, peripherals, SFR bits are clearly presented in many windows to make you understand the program flow very easily.

Program Execution A variety of program execution options including Single Stroke full speed execution, Single Step, Step Over and Breakpoint execution modes give you total control over the target program. Clearview updates all the windows with the correct and latest data and it is a convenient help during your debugging operations.You may find how this Topview Simulator simplifies the most difficult operation of the program development, debugging, into a very simple task. Simulation Facilities Powerful simulation facilities are incorporated for I/O lines, Interrupt lines, Clocks meant for Timers / Counters. Many external interfacing possibilities can be simulated:

Range of Plain Point LEDs and Seven Segment LED options. LCD modules in many configurations. Momentary ON keys. A variety of keypads upto 4 X 8 key matrix. Toggle switches. All modes of onchip serial port communication facility. I2C components including RTC, EEPROMs. SPI Bus based EEPROM devices.

Code Generation Facilities Powerful and versatile Code Generating facility enables you to generate the exact and compact assembly code / C Source code for many possible application oriented interfacing options. You can simply define your exact needs and get the target assembly code / C Source code at a press of button at anywhere in your program flow. The code gets embedded into your application program automatically. You are assured of trouble free working of final code in the real time. 1)
2)

3) 4)

All modes of the serial port. Interfacing I2C/SPI Bus devices. Range of keypads. Many LED/LCD interfacing possibilities.

1.

/*programming of 8051 interfacing with DC motor*/ ;L293D A - Positive of Motor ;L293D B - Negative of Motor ;L293D E - Enable pin of IC

L293D_A equ P2.0 L293D_B equ P2.1 L293D_E equ P2.2 org 0H Main: acall rotate_f acall delay acall break acall delay acall rotate_b acall delay acall break acall delay sjmp Main rotate_f: setb L293D_A clr L293D_B setb L293D_E ret rotate_b: clr L293D_A setb L293D_B setb L293D_E ret

;Rotate motor forward ;Let the motor rotate ;Stop the motor ;Wait for some time ;Rotate motor backward ;Let the motor rotate ;Stop the motor ;Wait for some time ;Do this in loop

;Make Positive of motor 1 ;Make negative of motor 0 ;Enable to run the motor

;Return from routine

;Make positive of motor 0 ;Make negative of motor 1 ;Enable to run the motor

;Return from routine

break: clr L293D_A clr L293D_B clr L293D_E ret delay: ;Make Positive of motor 0 ;Make negative of motor 0 ;Disable the o/p

;Return from routine ;Some Delay

mov r7,#20H back: mov r6,#FFH back1: mov r5,#FFH here: djnz r5, here djnz r6, back1 djnz r7, back ret 2. /* programming of 8051 interfacing with stepper motor*/

#include <REG2051.H>. #define stepper P1 void delay(); void main(){ while(1){ stepper = 0x0C; delay(); stepper = 0x06; delay(); stepper = 0x03; delay(); stepper = 0x09; delay(); }

} void delay(){ unsigned char i,j,k; for(i=0;i<6;i++) for(j=0;j<255;j++) for(k=0;k<255;k++); } 3. /* programming of 8051 interfacing with keyboaed*/ start: mov a,#00h mov p1,a mov a,#0fh mov p1,a press: mov a,p2 jz press ;making all rows of port p1 zero ;making all rows of port p1 high ;check until any key is pressed

after making sure that any key is pressed mov a,#01h mov r4,a mov r3,#00h next: mov a,r4 mov p1,a mov a,p2 jnz colscan mov a,r4 rl a mov r4,a mov a,r3 add a,#08h mov r3,a sjmp next ;make one row high at a time ;initiating counter ;making one row high at a time ;taking input from port A ;after getting the row jump to check column ;rotate left to check next row ;increment counter by 08 count ;jump to check next row

after identifying the row to check the colomn following steps are followed colscan: mov r5,#00h in: rrc a ;rotate right with carry until get the carry jc out ;jump on getting carry inc r3 ;increment one count

jmp in out: mov a,r3 da a mov p2,a jmp start 4.

;decimal adjust the contents of counter before display ;repeat for check next key

/* programming of 8051 interfacing with seven segment*/ #include<reg51.h> #include<7seg.h> /* 7 segment display decode data */ main() { while(1) { P1 = ZERO; /* To Display "0" in 7 segment display*/ delay(1000); /* 1 second time delay*/ P1 = ONE ; delay(1000); P1 = TWO; delay(1000); P1 = THREE; delay(1000); P1 = FOUR; delay(1000); P1 = FIVE; delay(1000); P1 = SIX; delay(1000); P1 = SEVEN; delay(1000); P1 = EIGHT; delay(1000); P1 = NINE; delay(1000); } } <strong>7seg.h </strong> #define #define #define ZERO ONE TWO 0x0C0 0x0F9 0x0A4

#define #define #define #define #define #define #define

THREE FOUR FIVE SIX SEVEN EIGHT NINE

0x0B0 0x99 0x92 0x82 0x0F8 0x80 0x90

void delay(unsigned int ms); /* Function for delay routine */ void delayms(); /* function for 1 ms delay*/ void delay(unsigned int ms) { while(ms--) { delayms(); /* call the 1 ms delay function for multiple routine*/ } } void delayms() /* 1 ms delay function for 20MHz clock frequency - this Values are calculated using "TIME8051.exe". */ { _asm MOV R2,#4 MOV R1,#57 TT1: DJNZ R1,TT1 DJNZ R2,TT1 _endasm }

5.

/* programming of 8051 interfacing with lcd*/

WRITE_TEXT: SETB RS MOV DATA,A SETB EN CLR EN LCALL WAIT_LCD RET LCALL INIT_LCD LCALL CLEAR_LCD MOV A,#'H' LCALL WRITE_TEXT MOV A,#'E'

LCALL WRITE_TEXT MOV A,#'L' LCALL WRITE_TEXT MOV A,#'L' LCALL WRITE_TEXT MOV A,#'O' LCALL WRITE_TEXT MOV A,#' ' LCALL WRITE_TEXT MOV A,#'W' LCALL WRITE_TEXT MOV A,#'O' LCALL WRITE_TEXT MOV A,#'R' LCALL WRITE_TEXT MOV A,#'L' LCALL WRITE_TEXT MOV A,#'D' LCALL WRITE_TEXT END

Linux Internals
Starting Date: Completing Date: Topics covered: Inter process communication(IPC) Signals and signal handling. Processes Socket Pipes & named pipes. Semaphores Shared memory. Message queue. Programs.

Linux Internals:
Linux Operating System
Linux is a free open-source operating system based on Unix. Linux was originally created by Linus Torvalds with the assistance of developers from around the globe. Linux is free to download, edit and distribute. Linux is a very powerful operating system and it is gradually becoming popular throughout the world.

Advantages of Linux
Low cost: There is no need to spend time and huge amount money to obtain licenses since Linux and much of its software come with the GNU General Public License. There is no need to worry about any software's that you use in Linux. Stability: Linux has high stability compared with other operating systems. There is no need to reboot the Linux system to maintain performance levels. Rarely it freeze up or slow down. It has a continuous up-times of hundreds of days or more. Performance: Linux provides high performance on various networks. It has the ability to handle large numbers of users simultaneously. Networking: Linux provides a strong support for network functionality; client and server systems can be easily set up on any computer running Linux. It can perform tasks like network backup more faster than other operating systems. Flexibility: Linux is very flexible. Linux can be used for high performance server applications, desktop applications, and embedded systems. You can install only the needed components for a particular use. You can also restrict the use of specific computers. Compatibility: It runs all common Unix software packages and can process all common file formats. Wider Choice: There is a large number of Linux distributions which gives you a wider choice. Each organization develop and support different distribution. You can pick the one you like best; the core function's are the same. Fast and easy installation: Linux distributions come with user-friendly installation.

Better use of hard disk: Linux uses its resources well enough even when the hard disk is almost full. Multitasking: Linux is a multitasking operating system. It can handle many things at the same time. Security: Linux is one of the most secure operating systems. File ownership and permissions make linux more secure. Open source: Linux is an Open source operating systems. You can easily get the source code for linux and edit it to develop your personal operating system. Today, Linux is widely used for both basic home and office uses. It is the main operating system used for high performance business and in web servers. Linux has made a high impact in this world. Inter process communication (IPC): Processes communicate with each other and with the kernel to coordinate their activities. Linux supports a number of Inter-Process Communication (IPC) mechanisms. Signals and pipes are two of them but Linux also supports the System V IPC mechanisms named after the Unix TM release in which they first appeared. Signals Signals are one of the oldest inter-process communication methods used by Unix .systems. They are used to signal asynchronous events to one or more processes. A signal could be generated by a keyboard interrupt or an error condition such as the process attempting to access a non-existent location in its virtual memory. Signals are also used by the shells to signal job control commands to their child processes. There are a set of defined signals that the kernel can generate or that can be generated by other processes in the system, provided that they have the correct privileges. You can list a system's set of signals using the kill command (kill -l), on my Intel Linux box this gives: 1) SIGHUP 5) SIGTRAP 9) SIGKILL 13) SIGPIPE 18) SIGCONT 22) SIGTTOU 26) SIGVTALRM 30) SIGPWR 2) SIGINT 6) SIGIOT 10) SIGUSR1 14) SIGALRM 19) SIGSTOP 23) SIGURG 27) SIGPROF 3) SIGQUIT 7) SIGBUS 11) SIGSEGV 15) SIGTERM 20) SIGTSTP 24) SIGXCPU 28) SIGWINCH 4) SIGILL 8) SIGFPE 12) SIGUSR2 17) SIGCHLD 21) SIGTTIN 25) SIGXFSZ 29) SIGIO

Pipes
The common Linux shells all allow redirection. For example $ ls | pr | lpr pipes the output from the ls command listing the directory's files into the standard input of the pr command which paginates them. Finally the standard output from the pr command is piped into the standard input of the lpr command which prints the results on the default printer. Pipes then are unidirectional byte streams which connect the standard output from one process into the standard input of another process. Neither process is aware of this redirection and behaves just as it would normally. It is the shell which sets up these temporary pipes between the processes.

In Linux, a pipe is implemented using two file data structures which both point at the same temporary VFS inode which itself points at a physical page within memory. shows that each file data structure contains pointers to different file operation routine vectors; one for writing to the pipe, the other for reading from the pipe.

This hides the underlying differences from the generic system calls which read and write to ordinary files. As the writing process writes to the pipe, bytes are copied into the shared data page and when the reading process reads from the pipe, bytes are copied from the shared data page. Linux must synchronize access to the pipe. It must make sure that the reader and the writer of the pipe are in step and to do this it uses locks, wait queues and signals. When the writer wants to write to the pipe it uses the standard write library functions. These all pass file descriptors that are indices into the process's set of file data structures, each one representing an open file or, as in this case, an open pipe. The Linux system call uses the write routine pointed at by the file data structure describing this pipe. That write routine uses information held in the VFS inode representing the pipe to manage the write request. If there is enough room to write all of the bytes into the pipe and, so long as the pipe is not locked by its reader, Linux locks it for the writer and copies the bytes to be written from the process's address space into the shared data page. If the pipe is locked by the reader or if there is not enough room for the data then the current process is made to sleep on the pipe inode's wait queue and the scheduler is called so that another process can run. It is interruptible, so it can receive signals and it will be woken by the reader when there is enough room for the write data or when the pipe is unlocked. When the data has been written, the pipe's VFS inode is unlocked and any waiting readers sleeping on the inode's wait queue will themselves be woken up. Reading data from the pipe is a very similar process to writing to it. Processes are allowed to do non-blocking reads (it depends on the mode in which they opened the file or pipe) and, in this case, if there is no data to be read or if the pipe is locked, an error will be returned. This means that the process can continue to run. The alternative is to wait on the pipe inode's wait queue until the write process has finished. When both processes have finished with the pipe, the pipe inode is discarded along with the shared data page.

Sockets
Sockets are interfaces that can "plug into" each other over a network. Once so "plugged in", the programs so connected communicate. This article discusses only simple aspects of stream inet sockets (don't worry about exactly what that is right now). For the purposes of this article, a "server" program is exposed via a socket connected to a certain /etc/services port number. A "client" program can then connect its own socket to the server's socket, at which time the client program's writes to the socket are read as stdin to the server program, and stdout from the server program are read from the client's socket reads. This is one subset of socket programming, but it's perhaps the easiest to master, so this is where you should start.

Diagram of client-server socket connection via xinetd. Note that the client communicates by reading and writing the socket, but the server program communicates via stdin and stdout. This tutorial requires a Linux box. It hasn't been tested on other types of UNIX, but I think it might work. This tutorial is centered around a system using xinetd, but it would be simple enough to adapt it to older inetd systems. This tutorial will not work under Windows. I think it's important that this complex type of programming be learned on the most reliable, straightforward system possible, so Windows is out. For the purposes of this tutorial, the server application will be at port 3333. Note that you can implement both the client and the server on a single computer, in which case the client is connected to a port on the computer containing both the client and the server.

System V IPC Mechanisms Linux supports three types of interprocess communication mechanisms that first appeared in Unix TM System V (1983). These are message queues, semaphores and shared memory. These System V IPC mechanisms all share common authentication methods. Processes may access these resources only by passing a unique reference identifier to the kernel via system calls. Access to these System V IPC objects is checked using access permissions, much like accesses to files are checked. The access rights to the System V IPC object is set by the creator of the object via system calls. The object's reference identifier is used by each mechanism as an index into a table of resources. It is not a straight forward index but requires some manipulation to generate the index. All Linux data structures representing System V IPC objects in the system include an ipc_perm structure which contains the owner and creator process's user and group identifiers. The access mode for this object (owner, group and other) and the IPC object's key. The key is used as a way of locating the System V IPC object's reference identifier. Two sets of keys are supported: public and private. If the key is public then any process in the system, subject to rights checking, can find the reference identifier for the System V IPC

object. System V IPC objects can never be referenced with a key, only by their reference identifier.

Message Queues
Message queues allow one or more processes to write messages, which will be read by one or more reading processes. Linux maintains a list of message queues, the msgque vector; each element of which points to a msqid_ds data structure that fully describes the message queue. When message queues are created a new msqid_ds data structure is allocated from system memory and inserted into the vector.

data structure contains an ipc_perm data structure and pointers to the messages entered onto this queue. In addition, Linux keeps queue modification times such as the last time that this queue was written to and so on. The msqid_ds also contains two wait queues; one for the writers to the queue and one for the readers of the message queue. Each time a process attempts to write a message to the write queue its effective user and group identifiers are compared with the mode in this queue's ipc_perm data structure. If the process can write to the queue then the message may be copied from the process's address space into a msg data structure and put at the end of this message queue. Each message is tagged with an application specific type, agreed between the cooperating processes. However, there may be no room for the message as Linux restricts the number and length of messages that can be written. In this case the process will be added to this message queue's write wait queue and the scheduler will be called to select a new process to run. It will be woken up when one or more messages have been read from this message queue.

Reading from the queue is a similar process. Again, the processes access rights to the write queue are checked. A reading process may choose to either get the first message in the queue regardless of its type or select messages with particular types. If no messages match this criteria the reading process will be added to the message queue's read wait queue and the scheduler run. When a new message is written to the queue this process will be woken up and run again.

Semaphores:
In its simplest form a semaphore is a location in memory whose value can be tested and set by more than one process. The test and set operation is, so far as each process is concerned, uninterruptible or atomic; once started nothing can stop it. The result of the test and set operation is the addition of the current value of the semaphore and the set value, which can be positive or negative. Depending on the result of the test and set operation one process may have to sleep until the semphore's value is changed by another process. Semaphores can be used to implement critical regions, areas of critical code that only one process at a time should be executing.Say you had many cooperating processes reading records from and writing records to a single data file. You would want that file access to be strictly coordinated. You could use a semaphore with an initial value of 1 and, around the file operating code, put two semaphore operations, the first to test and decrement the semaphore's value and the second to test and increment it. The first process to access the file would try to decrement the semaphore's value and it would succeed, the semaphore's value now being 0. This process can now go ahead and use the data file but if another process wishing to use it now tries to decrement the semaphore's value it would fail as the result would be -1. That process will be suspended until the first process has finished with the data file. When the first process has finished with the data file it will increment the semaphore's value, making it 1 again. Now the waiting process can be woken and this time its attempt to increment the semaphore will succeed.

System V IPC semaphore objects each describe a semaphore array and Linux uses the semid_ds data structure to represent this. All of the semid_ds data structures in the system are pointed at by the semary, a vector of pointers. There are sem_nsems in each semaphore array, each one described by asem data structure pointed at by sem_base. All of the processes that are allowed to manipulate the semaphore array of a System V IPC semaphore object may make system calls that perform operations on them. The system call can specify many operations and each operation is described by three inputs; the semaphore index, the operation value and a set of flags. The semaphore index is an index into the semaphore array and the operation value is a numerical value that will be added to the current value of the semaphore. First Linux tests whether or not all of the operations would succeed. An operation will succeed if the operation value added to the semaphore's current value would be greater than zero or if both the operation value and the semaphore's current value are zero. If any of the semaphore operations would fail Linux may suspend the process but only if the operation flags have not requested that the system call is non-blocking. If the process is to be suspended then Linux must save the state of the semaphore operations to be performed and put the current process onto a wait queue. It does this by building a sem_queue data structure on the stack and filling it out. The new sem_queue data structure is put at the end of this semaphore object's wait queue (using the sem_pending and sem_pending_last pointers). The current process is put on the wait queue in the sem_queue data structure (sleeper) and the scheduler called to choose another process to run. If all of the semaphore operations would have succeeded and the current process does not need to be suspended, Linux goes ahead and applies the operations to the appropriate mem-

bers of the semaphore array. Now Linux must check that any waiting, suspended, processes may now apply their semaphore operations. It looks at each member of the operations pending queue (sem_pending) in turn, testing to see if the semphore operations will succeed this time. If they will then it removes the sem_queue data structure from the operations pending list and applies the semaphore operations to the semaphore array. It wakes up the sleeping process making it available to be restarted the next time the scheduler runs. Linux keeps looking through the pending list from the start until there is a pass where no semaphore operations can be applied and so no more processes can be woken. There is a problem with semaphores, deadlocks. These occur when one process has altered the semaphores value as it enters a critical region but then fails to leave the critical region because it crashed or was killed. Linux protects against this by maintaining lists of adjustments to the semaphore arrays. The idea is that when these adjustments are applied, the semaphores will be put back to the state that they were in before the a process's set of semaphore operations were applied. These adjustments are kept in sem_undo data structures queued both on the semid_ds data structure and on the task_struct data structure for the processes using these semaphore arrays. Each individual semaphore operation may request that an adjustment be maintained. Linux will maintain at most one sem_undo data structure per process for each semaphore array. If the requesting process does not have one, then one is created when it is needed. The new sem_undo data structure is queued both onto this process's task_struct data structure and onto the semaphore array's semid_ds data structure. As operations are applied to the semphores in the semaphore array the negation of the operation value is added to this semphore's entry in the adjustment array of this process's sem_undo data structure. So, if the operation value is 2, then -2 is added to the adjustment entry for this semaphore. When processes are deleted, as they exit Linux works through their set of sem_undo data structures applying the adjustments to the semaphore arrays. If a semaphore set is deleted, the sem_undo data structures are left queued on the process's task_struct but the semaphore array identifier is made invalid. In this case the semaphore clean up code simply discards the sem_undo data structure.

Shared Memory:
Shared memory allows one or more processes to communicate via memory that appears in all of their virtual address spaces. The pages of the virtual memory is referenced by page table entries in each of the sharing processes' page tables. It does not have to be at the same address in all of the processes' virtual memory. As with all System V IPC objects, access to shared memory areas is controlled via keys and access rights checking. Once the memory is being shared, there are no checks on how the processes are using it. They must rely on other mechanisms, for example System V semaphores, to synchronize access to the memory.

Each newly created shared memory area is represented by a shmid_ds data structure. These are kept in the shm_segs vector. The shmid_ds data structure decribes how big the area of shared memory is, how many processes are using it and information about how that shared memory is mapped into their address spaces. It is the creator of the shared memory that controls the access permissions to that memory and whether its key is public or private. If it has enough access rights it may also lock the shared memory into physical memory. Each process that wishes to share the memory must attach to that virtual memory via a system call. This creates a new vm_area_struct data structure describing the shared memory for this process. The process can choose where in its virtual address space the shared mem-

ory goes or it can let Linux choose a free area large enough. The new vm_area_struct structure is put into the list of vm_area_structpointed at by the shmid_ds. The vm_next_shared and vm_prev_shared pointers are used to link them together. The virtual memory is not actually created during the attach; it happens when the first process attempts to access it. The first time that a process accesses one of the pages of the shared virtual memory, a page fault will occur. When Linux fixes up that page fault it finds the vm_area_struct data structure describing it. This contains pointers to handler routines for this type of shared virtual memory. The shared memory page fault handling code looks in the list of page table entries for this shmid_ds to see if one exists for this page of the shared virtual memory. If it does not exist, it will allocate a physical page and create a page table entry for it. As well as going into the current process's page tables, this entry is saved in the shmid_ds. This means that when the next process that attempts to access this memory gets a page fault, the shared memory fault handling code will use this newly created physical page for that process too. So, the first process that accesses a page of the shared memory causes it to be created and thereafter access by the other processes cause that page to be added into their virtual address spaces. When processes no longer wish to share the virtual memory, they detach from it. So long as other processes are still using the memory the detach only affects the current process. Its vm_area_struct is removed from the shmid_ds data structure and deallocated. The current process's page tables are updated to invalidate the area of virtual memory that it used to share. When the last process sharing the memory detaches from it, the pages of the shared memory current in physical memory are freed, as is the shmid_ds data structure for this shared memory. Further complications arise when shared virtual memory is not locked into physical memory. In this case the pages of the shared memory may be swapped out to the system's swap disk during periods of high memory usage.

PROGRAMS:1. /*program using ipc.*/ #include<stdio.h> #include<sys/types.h> //#include "ourhdr.h" main() { int pid , status;

if((pid=fork()<0)) printf("fork error \n"); else if(pid==0) exit(7); if(wait(&status)!=pid) printf("wait error \n"); _exit(status); if((pid=fork()<0)) printf("fork error \n"); else if(pid==0) abort(); if(wait(&status)!=pid) printf("wait error \n"); _exit(status); if((pid=fork()<0)) printf("Fork error \n"); else if(pid==0) status/=0; if(wait(&status)!=pid) printf(" Wait error \n"); _exit(status); exit(0); }

2. /*A message queue program that shows a client server implementation this is the reciever program using Message Queues.*/ #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> #include <unistd.h> #include <errno.h> #include <string.h> #include <sys/types.h> #include <sys/ipc.h> #include <sys/msg.h> struct my_msg_st { long int my_msg_type; char some_text[BUFSIZ]; }; int main(void) { int running = 1; int msgid;

struct my_msg_st some_data; long int msg_to_recieve = 0; /* Let us set up the message queue */ msgid = msgget((key_t)1234, 0666 | IPC_CREAT); if (msgid == -1) { perror("msgget failed with error"); exit(EXIT_FAILURE); } /* Then the messages are retrieved from the queue, until an end message is * encountered. lastly the message queue is deleted*/ while(running) { if (msgrcv(msgid, (void *)&some_data, BUFSIZ, msg_to_recieve, 0) == -1) { perror("msgcrv failed with error"); exit(EXIT_FAILURE); } printf("You wrote: %s", some_data.some_text); if (strncmp(some_data.some_text, "end", 3) == 0) { running = 0; } } if (msgctl(msgid, IPC_RMID, 0) == -1) { perror("msgctl(IPC_RMID) failed"); exit(EXIT_FAILURE); } exit(EXIT_SUCCESS); }

3.

/* program using semaphore.*/

#include <stdio.h> #include <sys/types.h> #include <sys/ipc.h> #include <sys/sem.h> #define KEY (1492) void main() { int id;

struct sembuf operations[1]; int retval; id = semget(KEY, 1, 0666); if(id < 0) { fprintf(stderr, "Program sema cannot find semaphore, exiting.\n"); exit(0); } /* Do a semaphore V-operation. */ printf("Program sema about to do a V-operation. \n"); operations[0].sem_num = 0; /* Which operation? Add 1 to semaphore value : */ operations[0].sem_op = 1; /* Set the flag so we will wait : */ operations[0].sem_flg = 0; /* So do the operation! */ retval = semop(id, operations, 1); if(retval == 0) { printf("Successful V-operation by program sema.\n"); } else { printf("sema: V-operation did not succeed.\n"); perror("REASON"); }

4./*Program using shared memory. */ #include <stdio.h> #include <sys/types.h> #include <sys/ipc.h> #include <sys/shm.h> extern void exit();

extern void perror(); main() { key_t key; /* key to be passed to shmget() */ int shmflg; /* shmflg to be passed to shmget() */ int shmid; /* return value from shmget() */ int size; /* size to be passed to shmget() */ (void) fprintf(stderr, "All numeric input is expected to follow C conventions:\n"); (void) fprintf(stderr, "\t0x... is interpreted as hexadecimal,\n"); (void) fprintf(stderr, "\t0... is interpreted as octal,\n"); (void) fprintf(stderr, "\totherwise, decimal.\n"); /* Get the key. */ (void) fprintf(stderr, "IPC_PRIVATE == %#lx\n", IPC_PRIVATE); (void) fprintf(stderr, "Enter key: "); (void) scanf("%li", &key); /* Get the size of the segment. */ (void) fprintf(stderr, "Enter size: "); (void) scanf("%i", &size); /* Get the shmflg value. */ (void) fprintf(stderr, "Expected flags for the shmflg argument are:\n"); (void) fprintf(stderr, "\tIPC_CREAT = \t%#8.8o\n", IPC_CREAT); (void) fprintf(stderr, "\tIPC_EXCL = \t%#8.8o\n", IPC_EXCL); (void) fprintf(stderr, "\towner read =\t%#8.8o\n", 0400); (void) fprintf(stderr, "\towner write =\t%#8.8o\n", 0200); (void) fprintf(stderr, "\tgroup read =\t%#8.8o\n", 040); (void) fprintf(stderr, "\tgroup write =\t%#8.8o\n", 020); (void) fprintf(stderr, "\tother read =\t%#8.8o\n", 04); (void) fprintf(stderr, "\tother write =\t%#8.8o\n", 02); (void) fprintf(stderr, "Enter shmflg: "); (void) scanf("%i", &shmflg); /* Make the call and report the results. */ (void) fprintf(stderr, "shmget: Calling shmget(%#lx, %d, %#o)\n", key, size, shmflg); if ((shmid = shmget (key, size, shmflg)) == -1) { perror("shmget: shmget failed");

exit(1); } else { (void) fprintf(stderr, "shmget: shmget returned %d\n", shmid); exit(0); } }

5. /* program using socket.*/ #include <stdio.h> #include <string.h> #include <netdb.h> #include <linux/in.h> #include <sys/socket.h> #include <unistd.h> #define buflen 512 unsigned int portno = 3333; char hostname[] = "192.168.100.2"; char *buf[buflen]; /* declare global to avoid stack */

void dia(char *sz) { printf("Dia %s\n", sz); } int printFromSocket(int sd, char *buf) { int len = buflen+1; int continueflag=1; while((len >= buflen)&&(continueflag)) /* quit b4 U read an empty socket */ { len = read(sd, buf, buflen); write(1,buf,len); buf[buflen-1]='\0'; /* Note bug if "Finished" ends the buffer */ continueflag=(strstr(buf, "Finished")==NULL); /* terminate if server says "Finished" */ } return(continueflag); }

main() { int sd = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, 0); /* init socket descriptor */ struct sockaddr_in sin; struct hostent *host = gethostbyname(hostname); char buf[buflen]; int len; /*** PLACE DATA IN sockaddr_in struct ***/ memcpy(&sin.sin_addr.s_addr, host->h_addr, host->h_length); sin.sin_family = AF_INET; sin.sin_port = htons(portno); /*** CONNECT SOCKET TO THE SERVICE DESCRIBED BY sockaddr_in struct ***/ if (connect(sd, (struct sockaddr *)&sin, sizeof(sin)) < 0) { perror("connecting"); exit(1); } sleep(1); /* give server time to reply */ while(1) { printf("\n\n"); if(!printFromSocket(sd, buf)) break; fgets(buf, buflen, stdin); /* remember, fgets appends the newline */ write(sd, buf, strlen(buf)); sleep(1); /* give server time to reply */ } close(sd);

6. /* program using thread.*/ #include <stdio.h> #include <pthread.h> #include <stdlib.h> void * thread1() { while(1){ printf("Hello!!\n"); } } void * thread2() { while(1){

printf("How are you?\n"); } } int main() { int status; pthread_t tid1,tid2; pthread_create(&tid1,NULL,thread1,NULL); pthread_create(&tid2,NULL,thread2,NULL); pthread_join(tid1,NULL); pthread_join(tid2,NULL); return 0; }