2011

NRL PLASMA FORMULARY

J.D. Huba
Beam Physics Branch
Plasma Physics Division
Naval Research Laboratory
Washington, DC 20375
Supported by
The Oce of Naval Research
1
CONTENTS
Numerical and Algebraic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Vector Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Dierential Operators in Curvilinear Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Dimensions and Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
International System (SI) Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Metric Prexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Physical Constants (SI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Physical Constants (cgs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Formula Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Maxwells Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Electricity and Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Electromagnetic Frequency/Wavelength Bands . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
AC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Dimensionless Numbers of Fluid Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Shocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Fundamental Plasma Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Plasma Dispersion Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Collisions and Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Approximate Magnitudes in Some Typical Plasmas . . . . . . . . . . 40
Ionospheric Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Solar Physics Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Thermonuclear Fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Relativistic Electron Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Beam Instabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Lasers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Atomic Physics and Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Atomic Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Complex (Dusty) Plasmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Afterword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2
NUMERICAL AND ALGEBRAIC
Gain in decibels of P
2
relative to P
1
G = 10 log
10
(P
2
/P
1
).
To within two percent
(2)
1/2
2.5;
2
10; e
3
20; 2
10
10
3
.
Euler-Mascheroni constant
1
= 0.57722
Gamma Function (x + 1) = x(x):
(1/6) = 5.5663 (3/5) = 1.4892
(1/5) = 4.5908 (2/3) = 1.3541
(1/4) = 3.6256 (3/4) = 1.2254
(1/3) = 2.6789 (4/5) = 1.1642
(2/5) = 2.2182 (5/6) = 1.1288
(1/2) = 1.7725 =

(1) = 1.0
Binomial Theorem (good for ] x ]< 1 or = positive integer):
(1 +x)

k=0
_

k
_
x
k
1 +x +
( 1)
2!
x
2
+
( 1)( 2)
3!
x
3
+ . . . .
Rothe-Hagen identity
2
(good for all complex x, y, z except when singular):
n

k=0
x
x + kz
_
x +kz
k
_
y
y + (n k)z
_
y + (n k)z
n k
_
=
x +y
x +y +nz
_
x +y +nz
n
_
.
Newbergers summation formula
3
[good for nonintegral, Re ( +) > 1]:

n=
(1)
n
J
n
(z)J
+n
(z)
n +
=

sin
J
+
(z)J

(z).
3
VECTOR IDENTITIES
4
Notation: f, g, are scalars; A, B, etc., are vectors; T is a tensor; I is the unit
dyad.
(1) A BC = AB C = B CA = BC A = C AB = CA B
(2) A(BC) = (CB) A = (A C)B(A B)C
(3) A(BC) +B(CA) +C(AB) = 0
(4) (AB) (CD) = (A C)(B D) (A D)(B C)
(5) (AB) (CD) = (AB D)C(AB C)D
(6) (fg) = (gf) = fg +gf
(7) (fA) = f A+ A f
(8) (fA) = fA+f A
(9) (AB) = B AA B
(10) (AB) = A( B) B( A) + (B )A(A )B
(11) A(B) = (B) A(A )B
(12) (A B) = A(B) +B(A) + (A )B+ (B )A
(13)
2
f = f
(14)
2
A = ( A) A
(15) f = 0
(16) A = 0
If e
1
, e
2
, e
3
are orthonormal unit vectors, a second-order tensor T can be
written in the dyadic form
(17) T =

i,j
T
ij
e
i
e
j
In cartesian coordinates the divergence of a tensor is a vector with components
(18) (T)
i
=

j
(T
ji
/x
j
)
[This denition is required for consistency with Eq. (29)]. In general
(19) (AB) = ( A)B+ (A )B
(20) (fT) = fT+fT
4
Let r = ix + jy + kz be the radius vector of magnitude r, from the origin to
the point x, y, z. Then
(21) r = 3
(22) r = 0
(23) r = r/r
(24) (1/r) = r/r
3
(25) (r/r
3
) = 4(r)
(26) r = I
If V is a volume enclosed by a surface S and dS = ndS, where n is the unit
normal outward from V,
(27)
_
V
dV f =
_
S
dSf
(28)
_
V
dV A =
_
S
dS A
(29)
_
V
dV T =
_
S
dST
(30)
_
V
dV A =
_
S
dS A
(31)
_
V
dV (f
2
g g
2
f) =
_
S
dS (fg gf)
(32)
_
V
dV (A BB A)
=
_
S
dS (BAAB)
If S is an open surface bounded by the contour C, of which the line element is
dl,
(33)
_
S
dS f =
_
C
dlf
5
(34)
_
S
dS A =
_
C
dl A
(35)
_
S
(dS ) A =
_
C
dl A
(36)
_
S
dS (f g) =
_
C
fdg =
_
C
gdf
DIFFERENTIAL OPERATORS IN
CURVILINEAR COORDINATES
5
Cylindrical Coordinates
Divergence
A =
1
r

r
(rA
r
) +
1
r
A

+
A
z
z
Gradient
(f)
r
=
f
r
; (f)

=
1
r
f

; (f)
z
=
f
z
Curl
(A)
r
=
1
r
A
z

z
(A)

=
A
r
z

A
z
r
(A)
z
=
1
r

r
(rA

)
1
r
A
r

Laplacian

2
f =
1
r

r
_
r
f
r
_
+
1
r
2

2
f

2
+

2
f
z
2
6
Laplacian of a vector
(
2
A)
r
=
2
A
r

2
r
2
A

A
r
r
2
(
2
A)

=
2
A

+
2
r
2
A
r

r
2
(
2
A)
z
=
2
A
z
Components of (A )B
(A B)
r
= A
r
B
r
r
+
A

r
B
r

+ A
z
B
r
z

r
(A B)

= A
r
B

r
+
A

r
B

+A
z
B

z
+
A

B
r
r
(A B)
z
= A
r
B
z
r
+
A

r
B
z

+A
z
B
z
z
Divergence of a tensor
( T)
r
=
1
r

r
(rT
rr
) +
1
r
T
r

+
T
zr
z

r
( T)

=
1
r

r
(rT
r
) +
1
r
T

+
T
z
z
+
T
r
r
( T)
z
=
1
r

r
(rT
rz
) +
1
r
T
z

+
T
zz
z
7
Spherical Coordinates
Divergence
A =
1
r
2

r
(r
2
A
r
) +
1
r sin

(sin A

) +
1
r sin
A

Gradient
(f)
r
=
f
r
; (f)

=
1
r
f

; (f)

=
1
r sin
f

Curl
(A)
r
=
1
r sin

(sin A

)
1
r sin
A

(A)

=
1
r sin
A
r

1
r

r
(rA

)
(A)

=
1
r

r
(rA

)
1
r
A
r

Laplacian

2
f =
1
r
2

r
_
r
2
f
r
_
+
1
r
2
sin

_
sin
f

_
+
1
r
2
sin
2

2
f

2
Laplacian of a vector
(
2
A)
r
=
2
A
r

2A
r
r
2

2
r
2
A

2 cot A

r
2

2
r
2
sin
A

(
2
A)

=
2
A

+
2
r
2
A
r

r
2
sin
2

2 cos
r
2
sin
2

(
2
A)

=
2
A

r
2
sin
2

+
2
r
2
sin
A
r

+
2 cos
r
2
sin
2

8
Components of (A )B
(A B)
r
= A
r
B
r
r
+
A

r
B
r

+
A

r sin
B
r

+ A

r
(A B)

= A
r
B

r
+
A

r
B

+
A

r sin
B

+
A

B
r
r

cot A

r
(A B)

= A
r
B

r
+
A

r
B

+
A

r sin
B

+
A

B
r
r
+
cot A

r
Divergence of a tensor
( T)
r
=
1
r
2

r
(r
2
T
rr
) +
1
r sin

(sin T
r
)
+
1
r sin
T
r

+T

r
( T)

=
1
r
2

r
(r
2
T
r
) +
1
r sin

(sin T

)
+
1
r sin
T

+
T
r
r

cot T

r
( T)

=
1
r
2

r
(r
2
T
r
) +
1
r sin

(sin T

)
+
1
r sin
T

+
T
r
r
+
cot T

r
9
DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
To get the value of a quantity in Gaussian units, multiply the value ex-
pressed in SI units by the conversion factor. Multiples of 3 in the conversion
factors result from approximating the speed of light c = 2.9979 10
10
cm/sec
3 10
10
cm/sec.
Dimensions
Physical Sym- SI Conversion Gaussian
Quantity bol SI Gaussian Units Factor Units
Capacitance C
t
2
q
2
ml
2
l farad 9 10
11
cm
Charge q q
m
1/2
l
3/2
t
coulomb 3 10
9
statcoulomb
Charge
q
l
3
m
1/2
l
3/2
t
coulomb 3 10
3
statcoulomb
density /m
3
/cm
3
Conductance
tq
2
ml
2
l
t
siemens 9 10
11
cm/sec
Conductivity
tq
2
ml
3
1
t
siemens 9 10
9
sec
1
/m
Current I, i
q
t
m
1/2
l
3/2
t
2
ampere 3 10
9
statampere
Current J, j
q
l
2
t
m
1/2
l
1/2
t
2
ampere 3 10
5
statampere
density /m
2
/cm
2
Density
m
l
3
m
l
3
kg/m
3
10
3
g/cm
3
Displacement D
q
l
2
m
1/2
l
1/2
t
coulomb 12 10
5
statcoulomb
/m
2
/cm
2
Electric eld E
ml
t
2
q
m
1/2
l
1/2
t
volt/m
1
3
10
4
statvolt/cm
Electro- L,
ml
2
t
2
q
m
1/2
l
1/2
t
volt
1
3
10
2
statvolt
motance Emf
Energy U, W
ml
2
t
2
ml
2
t
2
joule 10
7
erg
Energy w,
m
lt
2
m
lt
2
joule/m
3
10 erg/cm
3
density
10
Dimensions
Physical Sym- SI Conversion Gaussian
Quantity bol SI Gaussian Units Factor Units
Force F
ml
t
2
ml
t
2
newton 10
5
dyne
Frequency f,
1
t
1
t
hertz 1 hertz
Impedance Z
ml
2
tq
2
t
l
ohm
1
9
10
11
sec/cm
Inductance L
ml
2
q
2
t
2
l
henry
1
9
10
11
sec
2
/cm
Length l l l meter (m) 10
2
centimeter
(cm)
Magnetic H
q
lt
m
1/2
l
1/2
t
ampere 4 10
3
oersted
intensity turn/m
Magnetic ux
ml
2
tq
m
1/2
l
3/2
t
weber 10
8
maxwell
Magnetic B
m
tq
m
1/2
l
1/2
t
tesla 10
4
gauss
induction
Magnetic m,
l
2
q
t
m
1/2
l
5/2
t
amperem
2
10
3
oersted
moment cm
3
Magnetization M
q
lt
m
1/2
l
1/2
t
ampere 4 10
3
oersted
turn/m
Magneto- ,,
q
t
m
1/2
l
1/2
t
2
ampere
4
10
gilbert
motance Mmf turn
Mass m, M m m kilogram 10
3
gram (g)
(kg)
Momentum p, P
ml
t
ml
t
kgm/s 10
5
gcm/sec
Momentum
m
l
2
t
m
l
2
t
kg/m
2
s 10
1
g/cm
2
sec
density
Permeability
ml
q
2
1 henry/m
1
4
10
7

11
Dimensions
Physical Sym- SI Conversion Gaussian
Quantity bol SI Gaussian Units Factor Units
Permittivity
t
2
q
2
ml
3
1 farad/m 36 10
9

Polarization P
q
l
2
m
1/2
l
1/2
t
coulomb/m
2
3 10
5
statcoulomb
/cm
2
Potential V,
ml
2
t
2
q
m
1/2
l
1/2
t
volt
1
3
10
2
statvolt
Power P
ml
2
t
3
ml
2
t
3
watt 10
7
erg/sec
Power
m
lt
3
m
lt
3
watt/m
3
10 erg/cm
3
sec
density
Pressure p, P
m
lt
2
m
lt
2
pascal 10 dyne/cm
2
Reluctance 1
q
2
ml
2
1
l
ampereturn 4 10
9
cm
1
/weber
Resistance R
ml
2
tq
2
t
l
ohm
1
9
10
11
sec/cm
Resistivity ,
ml
3
tq
2
t ohmm
1
9
10
9
sec
Thermal con- , k
ml
t
3
ml
t
3
watt/m 10
5
erg/cmsec
ductivity deg (K) deg (K)
Time t t t second (s) 1 second (sec)
Vector A
ml
tq
m
1/2
l
1/2
t
weber/m 10
6
gausscm
potential
Velocity v
l
t
l
t
m/s 10
2
cm/sec
Viscosity ,
m
lt
m
lt
kg/ms 10 poise
Vorticity
1
t
1
t
s
1
1 sec
1
Work W
ml
2
t
2
ml
2
t
2
joule 10
7
erg
12
INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM (SI) NOMENCLATURE
6
Physical Name Symbol Physical Name Symbol
Quantity of Unit for Unit Quantity of Unit for Unit
*length meter m electric volt V
potential
*mass kilogram kg
electric ohm
*time second s resistance
*current ampere A electric siemens S
conductance
*temperature kelvin K
electric farad F
*amount of mole mol capacitance
substance
magnetic ux weber Wb
*luminous candela cd
intensity magnetic henry H
inductance
plane angle radian rad
magnetic tesla T
solid angle steradian sr intensity
frequency hertz Hz luminous ux lumen lm
energy joule J illuminance lux lx
force newton N activity (of a becquerel Bq
radioactive
pressure pascal Pa source)
power watt W absorbed dose gray Gy
(of ionizing
electric charge coulomb C radiation)
*SI base unit Supplementary unit
METRIC PREFIXES
Multiple Prex Symbol Multiple Prex Symbol
10
1
deci d 10 deca da
10
2
centi c 10
2
hecto h
10
3
milli m 10
3
kilo k
10
6
micro 10
6
mega M
10
9
nano n 10
9
giga G
10
12
pico p 10
12
tera T
10
15
femto f 10
15
peta P
10
18
atto a 10
18
exa E
13
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS (SI)
7
Physical Quantity Symbol Value Units
Boltzmann constant k 1.3807 10
23
J K
1
Elementary charge e 1.6022 10
19
C
Electron mass m
e
9.1094 10
31
kg
Proton mass m
p
1.6726 10
27
kg
Gravitational constant G 6.6726 10
11
m
3
s
2
kg
1
Planck constant h 6.6261 10
34
J s
h = h/2 1.0546 10
34
J s
Speed of light in vacuum c 2.9979 10
8
ms
1
Permittivity of
0
8.8542 10
12
Fm
1
free space
Permeability of
0
4 10
7
Hm
1
free space
Proton/electron mass m
p
/m
e
1.8362 10
3
ratio
Electron charge/mass e/m
e
1.7588 10
11
Ckg
1
ratio
Rydberg constant R

=
me
4
8
0
2
ch
3
1.0974 10
7
m
1
Bohr radius a
0
=
0
h
2
/me
2
5.2918 10
11
m
Atomic cross section a
0
2
8.7974 10
21
m
2
Classical electron radius r
e
= e
2
/4
0
mc
2
2.8179 10
15
m
Thomson cross section (8/3)r
e
2
6.6525 10
29
m
2
Compton wavelength of h/m
e
c 2.4263 10
12
m
electron h/m
e
c 3.8616 10
13
m
Fine-structure constant = e
2
/2
0
hc 7.2972 10
3

1
137.038
First radiation constant c
1
= 2hc
2
3.7418 10
16
Wm
2
Second radiation c
2
= hc/k 1.4388 10
2
mK
constant
Stefan-Boltzmann 5.6705 10
8
Wm
2
K
4
constant
14
Physical Quantity Symbol Value Units
Wavelength associated
0
= hc/e 1.2398 10
6
m
with 1 eV
Frequency associated
0
= e/h 2.4180 10
14
Hz
with 1 eV
Wave number associated k
0
= e/hc 8.0655 10
5
m
1
with 1 eV
Energy associated with h
0
1.6022 10
19
J
1 eV
Energy associated with hc 1.9864 10
25
J
1 m
1
Energy associated with me
3
/8
0
2
h
2
13.606 eV
1 Rydberg
Energy associated with k/e 8.6174 10
5
eV
1 Kelvin
Temperature associated e/k 1.1604 10
4
K
with 1 eV
Avogadro number N
A
6.0221 10
23
mol
1
Faraday constant F = N
A
e 9.6485 10
4
Cmol
1
Gas constant R = N
A
k 8.3145 J K
1
mol
1
Loschmidts number n
0
2.6868 10
25
m
3
(no. density at STP)
Atomic mass unit m
u
1.6605 10
27
kg
Standard temperature T
0
273.15 K
Atmospheric pressure p
0
= n
0
kT
0
1.0133 10
5
Pa
Pressure of 1 mm Hg 1.3332 10
2
Pa
(1 torr)
Molar volume at STP V
0
= RT
0
/p
0
2.2414 10
2
m
3
Molar weight of air M
air
2.8971 10
2
kg
calorie (cal) 4.1868 J
Gravitational g 9.8067 ms
2
acceleration
15
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS (cgs)
7
Physical Quantity Symbol Value Units
Boltzmann constant k 1.3807 10
16
erg/deg (K)
Elementary charge e 4.8032 10
10
statcoulomb
(statcoul)
Electron mass m
e
9.1094 10
28
g
Proton mass m
p
1.6726 10
24
g
Gravitational constant G 6.6726 10
8
dyne-cm
2
/g
2
Planck constant h 6.6261 10
27
erg-sec
h = h/2 1.0546 10
27
erg-sec
Speed of light in vacuum c 2.9979 10
10
cm/sec
Proton/electron mass m
p
/m
e
1.8362 10
3
ratio
Electron charge/mass e/m
e
5.2728 10
17
statcoul/g
ratio
Rydberg constant R

=
2
2
me
4
ch
3
1.0974 10
5
cm
1
Bohr radius a
0
= h
2
/me
2
5.2918 10
9
cm
Atomic cross section a
0
2
8.7974 10
17
cm
2
Classical electron radius r
e
= e
2
/mc
2
2.8179 10
13
cm
Thomson cross section (8/3)r
e
2
6.6525 10
25
cm
2
Compton wavelength of h/m
e
c 2.4263 10
10
cm
electron h/m
e
c 3.8616 10
11
cm
Fine-structure constant = e
2
/ hc 7.2972 10
3

1
137.038
First radiation constant c
1
= 2hc
2
3.7418 10
5
erg-cm
2
/sec
Second radiation c
2
= hc/k 1.4388 cm-deg (K)
constant
Stefan-Boltzmann 5.6705 10
5
erg/cm
2
-
constant sec-deg
4
Wavelength associated
0
1.2398 10
4
cm
with 1 eV
16
Physical Quantity Symbol Value Units
Frequency associated
0
2.4180 10
14
Hz
with 1 eV
Wave number associated k
0
8.0655 10
3
cm
1
with 1 eV
Energy associated with 1.6022 10
12
erg
1 eV
Energy associated with 1.9864 10
16
erg
1 cm
1
Energy associated with 13.606 eV
1 Rydberg
Energy associated with 8.6174 10
5
eV
1 deg Kelvin
Temperature associated 1.1604 10
4
deg (K)
with 1 eV
Avogadro number N
A
6.0221 10
23
mol
1
Faraday constant F = N
A
e 2.8925 10
14
statcoul/mol
Gas constant R = N
A
k 8.3145 10
7
erg/deg-mol
Loschmidts number n
0
2.6868 10
19
cm
3
(no. density at STP)
Atomic mass unit m
u
1.6605 10
24
g
Standard temperature T
0
273.15 deg (K)
Atmospheric pressure p
0
= n
0
kT
0
1.0133 10
6
dyne/cm
2
Pressure of 1 mm Hg 1.3332 10
3
dyne/cm
2
(1 torr)
Molar volume at STP V
0
= RT
0
/p
0
2.2414 10
4
cm
3
Molar weight of air M
air
28.971 g
calorie (cal) 4.1868 10
7
erg
Gravitational g 980.67 cm/sec
2
acceleration
17
FORMULA CONVERSION
8
Here = 10
2
cmm
1
, = 10
7
erg J
1
,
0
= 8.8542 10
12
Fm
1
,

0
= 410
7
Hm
1
, c = (
0

0
)
1/2
= 2.997910
8
ms
1
, and h = 1.0546
10
34
J s. To derive a dimensionally correct SI formula from one expressed in
Gaussian units, substitute for each quantity according to

Q =

kQ, where

k is
the coecient in the second column of the table corresponding to Q (overbars
denote variables expressed in Gaussian units). Thus, the formula a
0
=

h
2
/ m e
2
for the Bohr radius becomes a
0
= ( h)
2
/[(m/
2
)(e
2
/4
0
)], or a
0
=

0
h
2
/me
2
. To go from SI to natural units in which h = c = 1 (distinguished
by a circumex), use Q =

k
1

Q, where

k is the coecient corresponding to
Q in the third column. Thus a
0
= 4
0
h
2
/[( m h/c)( e
2

0
hc)] = 4/ m e
2
. (In
transforming from SI units, do not substitute for
0
,
0
, or c.)
Physical Quantity Gaussian Units to SI Natural Units to SI
Capacitance /4
0

0
1
Charge (/4
0
)
1/2
(
0
hc)
1/2
Charge density (/4
5

0
)
1/2
(
0
hc)
1/2
Current (/4
0
)
1/2
(
0
/ hc)
1/2
Current density (/4
3

0
)
1/2
(
0
/ hc)
1/2
Electric eld (4
0
/
3
)
1/2
(
0
/ hc)
1/2
Electric potential (4
0
/)
1/2
(
0
/ hc)
1/2
Electric conductivity (4
0
)
1

0
1
Energy ( hc)
1
Energy density /
3
( hc)
1
Force / ( hc)
1
Frequency 1 c
1
Inductance 4
0
/
0
1
Length 1
Magnetic induction (4/
3

0
)
1/2
(
0
hc)
1/2
Magnetic intensity (4
0
/
3
)
1/2
(
0
/ hc)
1/2
Mass /
2
c/ h
Momentum / h
1
Power ( hc
2
)
1
Pressure /
3
( hc)
1
Resistance 4
0
/ (
0
/
0
)
1/2
Time 1 c
Velocity c
1
18
MAXWELLS EQUATIONS
Name or Description SI Gaussian
Faradays law E =
B
t
E =
1
c
B
t
Amperes law H =
D
t
+J H =
1
c
D
t
+
4
c
J
Poisson equation D = D = 4
[Absence of magnetic B = 0 B = 0
monopoles]
Lorentz force on q (E +v B) q
_
E +
1
c
v B
_
charge q
Constitutive D = E D = E
relations B = H B = H
In a plasma,
0
= 4 10
7
Hm
1
(Gaussian units: 1). The
permittivity satises
0
= 8.8542 10
12
Fm
1
(Gaussian: 1)
provided that all charge is regarded as free. Using the drift approximation
v

= EB/B
2
to calculate polarization charge density gives rise to a dielec-
tric constant K /
0
= 1+3610
9
/B
2
(SI) = 1+4c
2
/B
2
(Gaussian),
where is the mass density.
The electromagnetic energy in volume V is given by
W =
1
2
_
V
dV (H B+E D) (SI)
=
1
8
_
V
dV (H B+ E D) (Gaussian).
Poyntings theorem is
W
t
+
_
S
N dS =
_
V
dV J E,
where S is the closed surface bounding V and the Poynting vector (energy ux
across S) is given by N = E H (SI) or N = cE H/4 (Gaussian).
19
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
In the following, = dielectric permittivity, = permeability of conduc-
tor,

= permeability of surrounding medium, = conductivity, f = /2 =

radiation frequency,
m
= /
0
and
e
= /
0
. Where subscripts are used,
1 denotes a conducting medium and 2 a propagating (lossless dielectric)
medium. All units are SI unless otherwise specied.
Permittivity of free space
0
= 8.8542 10
12
Fm
1
Permeability of free space
0
= 4 10
7
Hm
1
= 1.2566 10
6
Hm
1
Resistance of free space R
0
= (
0
/
0
)
1/2
= 376.73
Capacity of parallel plates of area C = A/d
A, separated by distance d
Capacity of concentric cylinders C = 2l/ ln(b/a)
of length l, radii a, b
Capacity of concentric spheres of C = 4ab/(b a)
radii a, b
Self-inductance of wire of length L = l/8
l, carrying uniform current
Mutual inductance of parallel wires L = (

l/4) [1 + 4 ln(d/a)]
of length l, radius a, separated
by distance d
Inductance of circular loop of radius L = b
_

[ln(8b/a) 2] +/4
_
b, made of wire of radius a,
carrying uniform current
Relaxation time in a lossy medium = /
Skin depth in a lossy medium = (2/)
1/2
= (f)
1/2
Wave impedance in a lossy medium Z = [/( + i/)]
1/2
Transmission coecient at T = 4.22 10
4
(f
m1

e2
/)
1/2
conducting surface
9
(good only for T 1)
Field at distance r from straight wire B

= I/2r tesla
carrying current I (amperes) = 0.2I/r gauss (r in cm)
Field at distance z along axis from B
z
= a
2
I/[2(a
2
+z
2
)
3/2
]
circular loop of radius a
carrying current I
20
ELECTROMAGNETIC FREQUENCY/
WAVELENGTH BANDS
10
Frequency Range Wavelength Range
Designation
Lower Upper Lower Upper
ULF* 30 Hz 10 Mm
VF* 30 Hz 300 Hz 1 Mm 10 Mm
ELF 300 Hz 3 kHz 100 km 1 Mm
VLF 3 kHz 30 kHz 10 km 100 km
LF 30 kHz 300 kHz 1 km 10 km
MF 300 kHz 3 MHz 100 m 1 km
HF 3 MHz 30 MHz 10 m 100 m
VHF 30 MHz 300 MHz 1 m 10 m
UHF 300 MHz 3 GHz 10 cm 1 m
SHF 3 GHz 30 GHz 1 cm 10 cm
S 2.6 3.95 7.6 11.5
G 3.95 5.85 5.1 7.6
J 5.3 8.2 3.7 5.7
H 7.05 10.0 3.0 4.25
X 8.2 12.4 2.4 3.7
M 10.0 15.0 2.0 3.0
P 12.4 18.0 1.67 2.4
K 18.0 26.5 1.1 1.67
R 26.5 40.0 0.75 1.1
EHF 30 GHz 300 GHz 1 mm 1 cm
Submillimeter 300 GHz 3 THz 100 m 1 mm
Infrared 3 THz 430 THz 700 nm 100 m
Visible 430 THz 750 THz 400 nm 700 nm
Ultraviolet 750 THz 30 PHz 10 nm 400 nm
X Ray 30 PHz 3 EHz 100 pm 10 nm
Gamma Ray 3 EHz 100 pm
In spectroscopy the angstrom is sometimes used (1

A = 10
8
cm = 0.1 nm).
*The boundary between ULF and VF (voice frequencies) is variously dened.
The SHF (microwave) band is further subdivided approximately as shown.
11
21
AC CIRCUITS
For a resistance R, inductance L, and capacitance C in series with
a voltage source V = V
0
exp(it) (here i =

1), the current is given

by I = dq/dt, where q satises
L
d
2
q
dt
2
+R
dq
dt
+
q
C
= V.
Solutions are q(t) = q
s
+ q
t
, I(t) = I
s
+ I
t
, where the steady state is
I
s
= iq
s
= V/Z in terms of the impedance Z = R+i(L1/C) and
I
t
= dq
t
/dt. For initial conditions q(0) q
0
= q
0
+ q
s
, I(0) I
0
, the
transients can be of three types, depending on = R
2
4L/C:
(a) Overdamped, > 0
q
t
=
I
0
+
+
q
0

exp(

t)
I
0
+

q
0

exp(
+
t),
I
t
=

+
(I
0
+

q
0
)

exp(
+
t)

(I
0
+
+
q
0
)

exp(

t),
where

= (R
1/2
)/2L;
(b) Critically damped, = 0
q
t
= [ q
0
+ (I
0
+
R
q
0
)t] exp(
R
t),
I
t
= [I
0
(I
0
+
R
q
0
)
R
t] exp(
R
t),
where
R
= R/2L;
(c) Underdamped, < 0
q
t
=
_

R
q
0
+I
0

1
sin
1
t + q
0
cos
1
t
_
exp(
R
t),
I
t
=
_
I
0
cos
1
t
(
1
2
+
R
2
) q
0
+
R
I
0

1
sin(
1
t)
_
exp(
R
t),
Here
1
=
0
(1 R
2
C/4L)
1/2
, where
0
= (LC)
1/2
is the resonant
frequency. At =
0
, Z = R. The quality of the circuit is Q =
0
L/R.
Instability results when L, R, C are not all of the same sign.
22
DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS OF FLUID MECHANICS
12
Name(s) Symbol Denition Signicance
Alfven, Al, Ka V
A
/V *(Magnetic force/
Karm an inertial force)
1/2
Bond Bd (

)L
2
g/ Gravitational force/
surface tension
Boussinesq B V/(2gR)
1/2
(Inertial force/
gravitational force)
1/2
Brinkman Br V
2
/kT Viscous heat/conducted heat
Capillary Cp V/ Viscous force/surface tension
Carnot Ca (T
2
T
1
)/T
2
Theoretical Carnot cycle
eciency
Cauchy, Cy, Hk V
2
/ = M
2
Inertial force/
Hooke compressibility force
Chandra- Ch B
2
L
2
/ Magnetic force/dissipative
sekhar forces
Clausius Cl LV
3
/kT Kinetic energy ow rate/heat
conduction rate
Cowling C (V
A
/V )
2
= Al
2
Magnetic force/inertial force
Crispation Cr /L Eect of diusion/eect of
surface tension
Dean D D
3/2
V/(2r)
1/2
Transverse ow due to
curvature/longitudinal ow
[Drag C
D
(

)Lg/ Drag force/inertial force

coecient]

V
2
Eckert E V
2
/c
p
T Kinetic energy/change in
thermal energy
Ekman Ek (/2L
2
)
1/2
= (Viscous force/Coriolis force)
1/2
(Ro/Re)
1/2
Euler Eu p/V
2
Pressure drop due to friction/
dynamic pressure
Froude Fr V/(gL)
1/2
(Inertial force/gravitational or
V/NL buoyancy force)
1/2
GayLussac Ga 1/T Inverse of relative change in
volume during heating
Grashof Gr gL
3
T/
2
Buoyancy force/viscous force
[Hall C
H
/r
L
Gyrofrequency/
coecient] collision frequency
*() Also dened as the inverse (square) of the quantity shown.
23
Name(s) Symbol Denition Signicance
Hartmann H BL/()
1/2
= (Magnetic force/
(RmRe C)
1/2
dissipative force)
1/2
Knudsen Kn /L Hydrodynamic time/
collision time
Lewis Le /1 *Thermal conduction/molecular
diusion
Lorentz Lo V/c Magnitude of relativistic eects
Lundquist Lu
0
LV
A
/ = J B force/resistive magnetic
Al Rm diusion force
Mach M V/C
S
Magnitude of compressibility
eects
Magnetic Mm V/V
A
= Al
1
(Inertial force/magnetic force)
1/2
Mach
Magnetic Rm
0
LV/ Flow velocity/magnetic diusion
Reynolds velocity
Newton Nt F/L
2
V
2
Imposed force/inertial force
Nusselt N L/k Total heat transfer/thermal
conduction
Peclet Pe LV/ Heat convection/heat conduction
Poisseuille Po D
2
p/LV Pressure force/viscous force
Prandtl Pr / Momentum diusion/
heat diusion
Rayleigh Ra gH
3
T/ Buoyancy force/diusion force
Reynolds Re LV/ Inertial force/viscous force
Richardson Ri (NH/V )
2
Buoyancy eects/
vertical shear eects
Rossby Ro V/2Lsin Inertial force/Coriolis force
Schmidt Sc /1 Momentum diusion/
molecular diusion
Stanton St /c
p
V Thermal conduction loss/
heat capacity
Stefan Sf LT
3
/k Radiated heat/conducted heat
Stokes S /L
2
f Viscous damping rate/
vibration frequency
Strouhal Sr fL/V Vibration speed/ow velocity
Taylor Ta (2L
2
/)
2
Centrifugal force/viscous force
R
1/2
(R)
3/2
(Centrifugal force/
(/) viscous force)
1/2
Thring, Th, Bo c
p
V/T
3
Convective heat transport/
Boltzmann radiative heat transport
Weber W LV
2
/ Inertial force/surface tension
24
Nomenclature:
B Magnetic induction
C
s
, c Speeds of sound, light
c
p
Specic heat at constant pressure (units m
2
s
2
K
1
)
D = 2R Pipe diameter
F Imposed force
f Vibration frequency
g Gravitational acceleration
H, L Vertical, horizontal length scales
k = c
p
Thermal conductivity (units kg m
1
s
2
)
N = (g/H)
1/2
BruntV aisala frequency
R Radius of pipe or channel
r Radius of curvature of pipe or channel
r
L
Larmor radius
T Temperature
V Characteristic ow velocity
V
A
= B/(
0
)
1/2
Alfven speed
Newtons-law heat coecient, k
T
x
= T
Volumetric expansion coecient, dV/V = dT
Bulk modulus (units kg m
1
s
2
)
R, V, p, T Imposed dierences in two radii, velocities,
pressures, or temperatures
Surface emissivity
Electrical resistivity
, 1 Thermal, molecular diusivities (units m
2
s
1
)
Latitude of point on earths surface
Collisional mean free path
= Viscosity

0
Permeability of free space
Kinematic viscosity (units m
2
s
1
)
Mass density of uid medium

Mass density of bubble, droplet, or moving object

Surface tension (units kg s
2
)
StefanBoltzmann constant
Solid-body rotational angular velocity
25
SHOCKS
At a shock front propagating in a magnetized uid at an angle with
respect to the magnetic induction B, the jump conditions are
13,14
(1) U =

U q;
(2) U
2
+p +B
2

/2 =

U
2
+ p +

B
2

/2;
(3) UV B

/ =

U

V

B

/;
(4) B

=

B

;
(5) UB

V B

=

U

B

V

B

;
(6)
1
2
(U
2
+V
2
) +w + (UB
2

V B

)/U
=
1
2
(

U
2
+

V
2
) + w + (

U

B
2

V

B

)/

U.
Here U and V are components of the uid velocity normal and tangential to
the front in the shock frame; = 1/ is the mass density; p is the pressure;
B

= Bsin , B

= Bcos ; is the magnetic permeability ( = 4 in cgs

units); and the specic enthalpy is w = e + p, where the specic internal
energy e satises de = Tds pd in terms of the temperature T and the
specic entropy s. Quantities in the region behind (downstream from) the
front are distinguished by a bar. If B = 0, then
15
(7) U

U = [( p p)( )]
1/2
;
(8) ( p p)( )
1
= q
2
;
(9) w w =
1
2
( p p)( + );
(10) e e =
1
2
( p +p)( ).
In what follows we assume that the uid is a perfect gas with adiabatic index
= 1 +2/n, where n is the number of degrees of freedom. Then p = RT/m,
where R is the universal gas constant and m is the molar weight; the sound
speed is given by C
s
2
= (p/)
s
= p; and w = e = p/( 1). For a
general oblique shock in a perfect gas the quantity X = r
1
(U/V
A
)
2
satises
14
(11) (X/)(Xcos
2
)
2
= X sin
2

_
[1 + (r 1)/2] X cos
2

_
, where
r = /, =
1
2
[ + 1 ( 1)r], and = C
s
2
/V
A
2
= 4p/B
2
.
The density ratio is bounded by
(12) 1 < r < ( + 1)/( 1).
If the shock is normal to B (i.e., if = /2), then
(13) U
2
= (r/)
_
C
s
2
+V
A
2
[1 + (1 /2)(r 1)]
_
;
(14) U/

U =

B/B = r;
26
(15)

V = V ;
(16) p = p + (1 r
1
)U
2
+ (1 r
2
)B
2
/2.
If = 0, there are two possibilities: switch-on shocks, which require < 1 and
for which
(17) U
2
= rV
A
2
;
(18)

U = V
A
2
/U;
(19)

B
2

= 2B
2

(r 1)( );
(20)

V =

U

B

/B

;
(21) p = p +U
2
(1 +)(1 r
1
),
and acoustic (hydrodynamic) shocks, for which
(22) U
2
= (r/)C
s
2
;
(23)

U = U/r;
(24)

V =

B

= 0;
(25) p = p +U
2
(1 r
1
).
For acoustic shocks the specic volume and pressure are related by
(26) / = [( + 1)p + ( 1) p] / [( 1)p + ( + 1) p].
In terms of the upstream Mach number M = U/C
s
,
(27) / = / = U/

U = ( + 1)M
2
/[( 1)M
2
+ 2];
(28) p/p = (2M
2
+ 1)/( + 1);
(29)

T/T = [( 1)M
2
+ 2](2M
2
+ 1)/( + 1)
2
M
2
;
(30)

M
2
= [( 1)M
2
+ 2]/[2M
2
+ 1].
The entropy change across the shock is
(31) s s s = c

ln[( p/p)(/ )

],
where c

= R/( 1)m is the specic heat at constant volume; here R is the

gas constant. In the weak-shock limit (M 1),
(32) s c

2( 1)
3( + 1)
(M
2
1)
3

16R
3( + 1)m
(M 1)
3
.
The radius at time t of a strong spherical blast wave resulting from the explo-
sive release of energy E in a medium with uniform density is
(33) R
S
= C
0
(Et
2
/)
1/5
,
where C
0
is a constant depending on . For = 7/5, C
0
= 1.033.
27
FUNDAMENTAL PLASMA PARAMETERS
All quantities are in Gaussian cgs units except temperature (T, T
e
, T
i
)
expressed in eV and ion mass (m
i
) expressed in units of the proton mass,
= m
i
/m
p
; Z is charge state; k is Boltzmanns constant; K is wavenumber;
is the adiabatic index; ln is the Coulomb logarithm.
Frequencies
electron gyrofrequency f
ce
=
ce
/2 = 2.80 10
6
BHz

ce
= eB/m
e
c = 1.76 10
7
Brad/sec
ion gyrofrequency f
ci
=
ci
/2 = 1.52 10
3
Z
1
BHz

ci
= ZeB/m
i
c = 9.58 10
3
Z
1
Brad/sec
electron plasma frequency f
pe
=
pe
/2 = 8.98 10
3
n
e
1/2
Hz

pe
= (4n
e
e
2
/m
e
)
1/2
= 5.64 10
4
n
e
1/2
rad/sec
ion plasma frequency f
pi
=
pi
/2
= 2.10 10
2
Z
1/2
n
i
1/2
Hz

pi
= (4n
i
Z
2
e
2
/m
i
)
1/2
= 1.32 10
3
Z
1/2
n
i
1/2
rad/sec
electron trapping rate
Te
= (eKE/m
e
)
1/2
= 7.26 10
8
K
1/2
E
1/2
sec
1
ion trapping rate
Ti
= (ZeKE/m
i
)
1/2
= 1.69 10
7
Z
1/2
K
1/2
E
1/2

1/2
sec
1
electron collision rate
e
= 2.91 10
6
n
e
ln T
e
3/2
sec
1
ion collision rate
i
= 4.80 10
8
Z
4

1/2
n
i
ln T
i
3/2
sec
1
Lengths
electron deBroglie length = h/(m
e
kT
e
)
1/2
= 2.76 10
8
T
e
1/2
cm
classical distance of e
2
/kT = 1.44 10
7
T
1
cm
minimum approach
electron gyroradius r
e
= v
Te
/
ce
= 2.38T
e
1/2
B
1
cm
ion gyroradius r
i
= v
Ti
/
ci
= 1.02 10
2

1/2
Z
1
T
i
1/2
B
1
cm
electron inertial length c/
pe
= 5.31 10
5
n
e
1/2
cm
ion inertial length c/
pi
= 2.28 10
7
Z
1
(/n
i
)
1/2
cm
Debye length
D
= (kT/4ne
2
)
1/2
= 7.43 10
2
T
1/2
n
1/2
cm
28
Velocities
electron thermal velocity v
Te
= (kT
e
/m
e
)
1/2
= 4.19 10
7
T
e
1/2
cm/sec
ion thermal velocity v
Ti
= (kT
i
/m
i
)
1/2
= 9.79 10
5

1/2
T
i
1/2
cm/sec
ion sound velocity C
s
= (ZkT
e
/m
i
)
1/2
= 9.79 10
5
(ZT
e
/)
1/2
cm/sec
Alfven velocity v
A
= B/(4n
i
m
i
)
1/2
= 2.18 10
11

1/2
n
i
1/2
Bcm/sec
Dimensionless
(electron/proton mass ratio)
1/2
(m
e
/m
p
)
1/2
= 2.33 10
2
= 1/42.9
number of particles in (4/3)n
D
3
= 1.72 10
9
T
3/2
n
1/2
Debye sphere
Alfven velocity/speed of light v
A
/c = 7.28
1/2
n
i
1/2
B
electron plasma/gyrofrequency
pe
/
ce
= 3.21 10
3
n
e
1/2
B
1
ratio
ion plasma/gyrofrequency ratio
pi
/
ci
= 0.137
1/2
n
i
1/2
B
1
thermal/magnetic energy ratio = 8nkT/B
2
= 4.03 10
11
nTB
2
magnetic/ion rest energy ratio B
2
/8n
i
m
i
c
2
= 26.5
1
n
i
1
B
2
Miscellaneous
Bohm diusion coecient D
B
= (ckT/16eB)
= 6.25 10
6
TB
1
cm
2
/sec
transverse Spitzer resistivity

= 1.15 10
14
Z ln T
3/2
sec
= 1.03 10
2
Z ln T
3/2
cm
The anomalous collision rate due to low-frequency ion-sound turbulence is
*
pe
W/kT = 5.64 10
4
n
e
1/2
W/kT sec
1
,
where W is the total energy of waves with /K < v
Ti
.
Magnetic pressure is given by
P
mag
= B
2
/8 = 3.98 10
6
(B/B
0
)
2
dynes/cm
2
= 3.93(B/B
0
)
2
atm,
where B
0
= 10 kG = 1 T.
Detonation energy of 1 kiloton of high explosive is
W
kT
= 10
12
cal = 4.2 10
19
erg.
29
PLASMA DISPERSION FUNCTION
Denition
16
(rst form valid only for Im > 0):
Z() =
1/2
_
+

dt exp
_
t
2
_
t
= 2i exp
_

2
_
_
i

dt exp
_
t
2
_
.
Physically, = x +iy is the ratio of wave phase velocity to thermal velocity.
Dierential equation:
dZ
d
= 2 (1 +Z) , Z(0) = i
1/2
;
d
2
Z
d
2
+ 2
dZ
d
+ 2Z = 0.
Real argument (y = 0):
Z(x) = exp
_
x
2
_
_
i
1/2
2
_
x
0
dt exp
_
t
2
_
_
.
Imaginary argument (x = 0):
Z(iy) = i
1/2
exp
_
y
2
_
[1 erf(y)] .
Power series (small argument):
Z() = i
1/2
exp
_

2
_
2
_
1 2
2
/3 + 4
4
/15 8
6
/105 +
_
.
Asymptotic series, ]] 1 (Ref. 17):
Z() = i
1/2
exp
_

2
_

1
_
1 + 1/2
2
+ 3/4
4
+ 15/8
6
+
_
,
where
=
_
0 y > ]x]
1
1 ]y] < ]x]
1
2 y < ]x]
1
Symmetry properties (the asterisk denotes complex conjugation):
Z(*) = [Z()]*;
Z(*) = [Z()] * + 2i
1/2
exp[(*)
2
] (y > 0).
Two-pole approximations
18
(good for in upper half plane except when y <

1/2
x
2
exp(x
2
), x 1):
Z()
0.50 + 0.81i
a

0.50 0.81i
a* +
, a = 0.51 0.81i;
Z

()
0.50 + 0.96i
(b )
2
+
0.50 0.96i
(b* + )
2
, b = 0.48 0.91i.
30
COLLISIONS AND TRANSPORT
Temperatures are in eV; the corresponding value of Boltzmanns constant
is k = 1.60 10
12
erg/eV; masses ,

are in units of the proton mass;

e

= Z

e is the charge of species . All other units are cgs except where
noted.
Relaxation Rates
Rates are associated with four relaxation processes arising from the in-
teraction of test particles (labeled ) streaming with velocity v

through a
background of eld particles (labeled ):
slowing down
dv

dt
=
\
s
v

transverse diusion
d
dt
(v

)
2

=
\

2
parallel diusion
d
dt
(v

)
2

=
\

2
energy loss
d
dt
v

2
=
\

2
,
where v

= ]v

] and the averages are performed over an ensemble of test

particles and a Maxwellian eld particle distribution. The exact formulas may
be written
19

\
s
= (1 +m

/m

)(x
\
)
\
0
;

= 2
_
(1 1/2x
\
)(x
\
) +

(x
\
)

\
0
;

=
_
(x
\
)/x
\

\
0
;

= 2
_
(m

/m

)(x
\
)

(x
\
)

\
0
,
where

\
0
= 4e

2
e

/m

2
v

3
; x
\
= m

2
/2kT

;
(x) =
2

_
x
0
dt t
1/2
e
t
;

(x) =
d
dx
,
and

= ln

is the Coulomb logarithm (see below). Limiting forms of

s
,

and

are given in the following table. All the expressions shown

31
have units cm
3
sec
1
. Test particle energy and eld particle temperature T
are both in eV; = m
i
/m
p
where m
p
is the proton mass; Z is ion charge
state; in electronelectron and ionion encounters, eld particle quantities are
distinguished by a prime. The two expressions given below for each rate hold
for very slow (x
\
1) and very fast (x
\
1) test particles, respectively.
Slow Fast
Electronelectron

e|e
s
/n
e

ee
5.8 10
6
T
3/2
7.7 10
6

3/2

e|e

/n
e

ee
5.8 10
6
T
1/2

1
7.7 10
6

3/2

e|e

/n
e

ee
2.9 10
6
T
1/2

1
3.9 10
6
T
5/2
Electronion

e|i
s
/n
i
Z
2

ei
0.23
3/2
T
3/2
3.9 10
6

3/2

e|i

/n
i
Z
2

ei
2.5 10
4

1/2
T
1/2

1
7.7 10
6

3/2

e|i

/n
i
Z
2

ei
1.2 10
4

1/2
T
1/2

1
2.1 10
9

1
T
5/2
Ionelectron

i|e
s
/n
e
Z
2

ie
1.6 10
9

1
T
3/2
1.7 10
4

1/2

3/2

i|e

/n
e
Z
2

ie
3.2 10
9

1
T
1/2

1
1.8 10
7

1/2

3/2

i|e

/n
e
Z
2

ie
1.6 10
9

1
T
1/2

1
1.7 10
4

1/2
T
5/2
Ionion

i|i

s
n
i
Z
2
Z
2

ii

6.8 10
8

1/2

_
1 +

_
1/2
T
3/2
9.0 10
8
_
1

+
1

1/2

3/2

i|i

n
i
Z
2
Z
2

ii

1.4 10
7

1/2

1
T
1/2

1
1.8 10
7

1/2

3/2

i|i

n
i
Z
2
Z
2

ii

6.8 10
8

1/2

1
T
1/2

1
9.0 10
8

1/2

1
T
5/2
In the same limits, the energy transfer rate follows from the identity

= 2
s

,
except for the case of fast electrons or fast ions scattered by ions, where the
leading terms cancel. Then the appropriate forms are

e|i

4.2 10
9
n
i
Z
2

ei
_

3/2

1
8.9 10
4
(/T)
1/2

1
exp(1836/T)

sec
1
32
and

i|i

1.8 10
7
n
i
Z
2
Z
2

ii

3/2

1/2
/

1.1[( +

)/

](

/T

)
1/2

1
exp(

/T

sec
1
.
In general, the energy transfer rate
\

is positive for >

* and nega-
tive for <

*, where x* = (m

/m

*/T

is the solution of

(x*) =
(m

]m

)(x*). The ratio

*/T

is given for a number of specic , in the

following table:
\ i]e e]e, i]i e]p e]D e]T, e]He
3
e]He
4

*
T

1.5 0.98 4.8 10

3
2.6 10
3
1.8 10
3
1.4 10
3
When both species are near Maxwellian, with T
i
<

T
e
, there are just
two characteristic collision rates. For Z = 1,

e
= 2.9 10
6
nT
e
3/2
sec
1
;

i
= 4.8 10
8
nT
i
3/2

1/2
sec
1
.
Temperature Isotropization
Isotropization is described by
dT

dt
=
1
2
dT

dt
=

T
(T

),
where, if A T

/T

1 > 0,

T
=
2

2
e

2
n

1/2
(kT

)
3/2
A
2
_
3 + (A+ 3)
tan
1
(A
1/2
)
A
1/2
_
.
If A < 0, tan
1
(A
1/2
)/A
1/2
is replaced by tanh
1
(A)
1/2
/(A)
1/2
. For
T

T,

e
T
= 8.2 10
7
nT
3/2
sec
1
;

i
T
= 1.9 10
8
nZ
2

1/2
T
3/2
sec
1
.
33
Thermal Equilibration
If the components of a plasma have dierent temperatures, but no rela-
tive drift, equilibration is described by
dT

dt
=

(T

),
where

\

= 1.8 10
19
(m

)
1/2
Z

2
Z

2
n

(m

+m

)
3/2
sec
1
.
For electrons and ions with T
e
T
i
T, this implies

e|i

/n
i
=
i|e

/n
e
= 3.2 10
9
Z
2
/T
3/2
cm
3
sec
1
.
Coulomb Logarithm
For test particles of mass m

and charge e

= Z

e scattering o eld
particles of mass m

and charge e

= Z

e, the Coulomb logarithm is dened

as = ln ln(r
max
/r
min
). Here r
min
is the larger of e

/m

u
2
and
h/2m

u, averaged over both particle velocity distributions, where m

=
m

/(m

+m

) and u = v

; r
max
= (4

2
/kT

)
1/2
, where
the summation extends over all species for which u
2
< v
T
2
= kT

/m

. If
this inequality cannot be satised, or if either u
c
1
< r
max
or u
c
1
<
r
max
, the theory breaks down. Typically 1020. Corrections to the trans-
port coecients are O(
1
); hence the theory is good only to 10% and fails
when 1.
The following cases are of particular interest:
(a) Thermal electronelectron collisions

ee
= 23.5 ln(n
e
1/2
T
e
5/4
) [10
5
+ (ln T
e
2)
2
/16]
1/2
(b) Electronion collisions

ei
=
ie
= 23 ln
_
n
e
1/2
ZT
3/2
e
_
, T
i
m
e
/m
i
< T
e
< 10Z
2
eV;
= 24 ln
_
n
e
1/2
T
1
e
_
, T
i
m
e
/m
i
< 10Z
2
eV < T
e
= 30 ln
_
n
i
1/2
T
i
3/2
Z
2

1
_
, T
e
< T
i
Zm
e
/m
i
.
(c) Mixed ionion collisions

ii
=
i

i
= 23 ln
_
ZZ

( +

)
T
i
+

T
i
_
n
i
Z
2
T
i
+
n
i
Z
2
T
i

_
1/2
_
.
34
(d) Counterstreaming ions (relative velocity v
D
=
D
c) in the presence of
warm electrons, kT
i
/m
i
, kT
i
/m
i
< v
D
2
< kT
e
/m
e

ii
=
i

i
= 35 ln
_
ZZ

( +

D
2
_
n
e
T
e
_
1/2
_
.
Fokker-Planck Equation
Df

Dt

t
+v f

+F
v
f

=
_
f

t
_
coll
,
where F is an external force eld. The general form of the collision integral is
(f

/t)
coll
=

v
J
\
, with
J
\
= 2

2
e

2
m

_
d
3
v

(u
2
I uu)u
3

_
1
m

(v)
v
f

(v

)
1
m

(v

)
v
f

(v)
_
(Landau form) where u = v

v and I is the unit dyad, or alternatively,

J
\
= 4

2
e

2
m

2
_
f

(v)
v
H(v)
1
2

_
f

(v)
v

v
G(v)

_
,
where the Rosenbluth potentials are
G(v) =
_
f

(v

)ud
3
v

H(v) =
_
1 +
m

_
_
f

(v

)u
1
d
3
v

.
If species is a weak beam (number and energy density small compared with
background) streaming through a Maxwellian plasma, then
J
\
=
m

+m

\
s
vf

1
2

vv
v
f

1
4

_
v
2
I vv
_

v
f

.
35
B-G-K Collision Operator
For distribution functions with no large gradients in velocity space, the
Fokker-Planck collision terms can be approximated according to
Df
e
Dt
=
ee
(F
e
f
e
) +
ei
(

F
e
f
e
);
Df
i
Dt
=
ie
(

F
i
f
i
) +
ii
(F
i
f
i
).
The respective slowing-down rates
\
s
given in the Relaxation Rate section
above can be used for

, assuming slow ions and fast electrons, with re-

placed by T

. (For
ee
and
ii
, one can equally well use

, and the result

is insensitive to whether the slow- or fast-test-particle limit is employed.) The
Maxwellians F

and

F

are given by
F

= n

_
m

2kT

_
3/2
exp
_

_
m

(v v

)
2
2kT

__
;

= n

_
m

2k

_
3/2
exp
_

_
m

(v v

)
2
2k

__
,
where n

, v

and T

are the number density, mean drift velocity, and eective

temperature obtained by taking moments of f

. Some latitude in the denition

of

T

and v

is possible;
20
one choice is

T
e
= T
i
,

T
i
= T
e
, v
e
= v
i
, v
i
= v
e
.
Transport Coecients
Transport equations for a multispecies plasma:
d

dt
+ n

= 0;
m

dt
= p

+Z

en

_
E +
1
c
v

B
_
+R

;
3
2
n

kT

dt
+p

= q

: v

+Q

.
Here d

/dt /t + v

; p

= n

kT

, where k is Boltzmanns constant;

R

and Q

, where R

and Q

are respectively
the momentum and energy gained by the th species through collisions with
the th; P

is the stress tensor; and q

is the heat ow.

36
The transport coecients in a simple two-component plasma (electrons
and singly charged ions) are tabulated below. Here j and refer to the di-
rection of the magnetic eld B = bB; u = v
e
v
i
is the relative streaming
velocity; n
e
= n
i
n; j = neu is the current;
ce
= 1.76 10
7
Bsec
1
and

ci
= (m
e
/m
i
)
ce
are the electron and ion gyrofrequencies, respectively; and
the basic collisional times are taken to be

e
=
3

m
e
(kT
e
)
3/2
4

2 ne
4
= 3.44 10
5
T
e
3/2
n
sec,
where is the Coulomb logarithm, and

i
=
3

m
i
(kT
i
)
3/2
4

ne
4
= 2.09 10
7
T
i
3/2
n

1/2
sec.
In the limit of large elds (
c

1, = i, e) the transport processes may

be summarized as follows:
21
momentum transfer R
ei
= R
ie
R = R
u
+R
T
;
frictional force R
u
= ne(j

+j

);
electrical

= 1.96

= ne
2

e
/m
e
;
conductivities
thermal force R
T
= 0.71n

(kT
e
)
3n
2
ce

e
b

(kT
e
);
ion heating Q
i
=
3m
e
m
i
nk

e
(T
e
T
i
);
electron heating Q
e
= Q
i
R u;
ion heat ux q
i
=
i

(kT
i
)
i

(kT
i
) +
i

(kT
i
);
ion thermal
i

= 3.9
nkT
i

i
m
i
;
i

=
2nkT
i
m
i

2
ci

i
;
i

=
5nkT
i
2m
i

ci
;
conductivities
electron heat ux q
e
= q
e
u
+q
e
T
;
frictional heat ux q
e
u
= 0.71nkT
e
u

+
3nkT
e
2
ce

e
b u

;
thermal gradient q
e
T
=
e

(kT
e
)
e

(kT
e
)
e

(kT
e
);
heat ux
electron thermal
e

= 3.2
nkT
e

e
m
e
;
e

= 4.7
nkT
e
m
e

2
ce

e
;
e

=
5nkT
e
2m
e

ce
;
conductivities
37
stress tensor (either P
xx
=

0
2
(W
xx
+W
yy
)

1
2
(W
xx
W
yy
)
3
W
xy
;
species)
P
yy
=

0
2
(W
xx
+W
yy
) +

1
2
(W
xx
W
yy
) +
3
W
xy
;
P
xy
= P
yx
=
1
W
xy
+

3
2
(W
xx
W
yy
);
P
xz
= P
zx
=
2
W
xz

4
W
yz
;
P
yz
= P
zy
=
2
W
yz
+
4
W
xz
;
P
zz
=
0
W
zz
(here the z axis is dened parallel to B);
ion viscosity
i
0
= 0.96nkT
i

i
;
i
1
=
3nkT
i
10
2
ci

i
;
i
2
=
6nkT
i
5
2
ci

i
;

i
3
=
nkT
i
2
ci
;
i
4
=
nkT
i

ci
;
electron viscosity
e
0
= 0.73nkT
e

e
;
e
1
= 0.51
nkT
e

2
ce

e
;
e
2
= 2.0
nkT
e

2
ce

e
;

e
3
=
nkT
e
2
ce
;
e
4
=
nkT
e

ce
.
For both species the rate-of-strain tensor is dened as
W
jk
=
v
j
x
k
+
v
k
x
j

2
3

jk
v.
When B = 0 the following simplications occur:
R
u
= nej/

; R
T
= 0.71n(kT
e
); q
i
=
i

(kT
i
);
q
e
u
= 0.71nkT
e
u; q
e
T
=
e

(kT
e
); P
jk
=
0
W
jk
.
For
ce

e
1
ci

i
, the electrons obey the high-eld expressions and the
ions obey the zero-eld expressions.
Collisional transport theory is applicable when (1) macroscopic time rates
of change satisfy d/dt 1/, where is the longest collisional time scale, and
(in the absence of a magnetic eld) (2) macroscopic length scales L satisfy L
l, where l = v is the mean free path. In a strong eld,
ce
1, condition
(2) is replaced by L

l and L

lr
e
(L

r
e
in a uniform eld),
where L

is a macroscopic scale parallel to the eld B and L

is the smaller
of B/]

B] and the transverse plasma dimension. In addition, the standard

transport coecients are valid only when (3) the Coulomb logarithm satises
1; (4) the electron gyroradius satises r
e

D
, or 8n
e
m
e
c
2
B
2
; (5)
relative drifts u = v

between two species are small compared with the

38
thermal velocities, i.e., u
2
kT

/m

, kT

/m

; and (6) anomalous transport

processes owing to microinstabilities are negligible.
Weakly Ionized Plasmas
Collision frequency for scattering of charged particles of species by
neutrals is

= n
0

|0
s
(kT

/m

)
1/2
,
where n
0
is the neutral density,
\0
s
is the cross section, typically 510
15
cm
2
and weakly dependent on temperature, and (T
0
/m
0
)
1/2
< (T

/m

)
1/2
where T
0
and m
0
are the temperature and mass of the neutrals.
When the system is small compared with a Debye length, L
D
, the
charged particle diusion coecients are
D

= kT

/m

,
In the opposite limit, both species diuse at the ambipolar rate
D
A
=

i
D
e

e
D
i

e
=
(T
i
+ T
e
)D
i
D
e
T
i
D
e
+T
e
D
i
,
where

= e

/m

is the mobility. The conductivity

satises

=
n

.
In the presence of a magnetic eld B the scalars and become tensors,
J

E =

E b,
where b = B/B and

= n

2
/m

2
/(

2
+
2
c
);

c
/(

2
+
2
c
).
Here

and

are the Pedersen and Hall conductivities, respectively.

39
APPROXIMATE MAGNITUDES
IN SOME TYPICAL PLASMAS
Plasma Type n cm
3
T eV
pe
sec
1

D
cm n
D
3

ei
sec
1
Interstellar gas 1 1 6 10
4
7 10
2
4 10
8
7 10
5
Gaseous nebula 10
3
1 2 10
6
20 8 10
6
6 10
2
Solar Corona 10
9
10
2
2 10
9
2 10
1
8 10
6
60
Diuse hot plasma 10
12
10
2
6 10
10
7 10
3
4 10
5
40
Solar atmosphere, 10
14
1 6 10
11
7 10
5
40 2 10
9
gas discharge
Warm plasma 10
14
10 6 10
11
2 10
4
8 10
2
10
7
Hot plasma 10
14
10
2
6 10
11
7 10
4
4 10
4
4 10
6
Thermonuclear 10
15
10
4
2 10
12
2 10
3
8 10
6
5 10
4
plasma
Theta pinch 10
16
10
2
6 10
12
7 10
5
4 10
3
3 10
8
Dense hot plasma 10
18
10
2
6 10
13
7 10
6
4 10
2
2 10
10
Laser Plasma 10
20
10
2
6 10
14
7 10
7
40 2 10
12
The diagram (facing) gives comparable information in graphical form.
22
40
41
IONOSPHERIC PARAMETERS
23
The following tables give average nighttime values. Where two numbers
are entered, the rst refers to the lower and the second to the upper portion
of the layer.
Quantity E Region F Region
Altitude (km) 90160 160500
Number density (m
3
) 1.5 10
10
3.0 10
10
5 10
10
2 10
11
Height-integrated number 9 10
14
4.5 10
15
density (m
2
)
Ion-neutral collision 2 10
3
10
2
0.50.05
frequency (sec
1
)
Ion gyro-/collision 0.092.0 4.6 10
2
5.0 10
3
frequency ratio
i
Ion Pederson factor 0.090.5 2.2 10
3
2 10
4

i
/(1 +
i
2
)
Ion Hall factor 8 10
4
0.8 1.0

i
2
/(1 +
i
2
)
Electron-neutral collision 1.5 10
4
9.0 10
2
8010
frequency
Electron gyro-/collision 4.1 10
2
6.9 10
3
7.8 10
4
6.2 10
5
frequency ratio
e
Electron Pedersen factor 2.7 10
3
1.5 10
4
10
5
1.5 10
6

e
/(1 +
e
2
)
Electron Hall factor 1.0 1.0

e
2
/(1 +
e
2
)
Mean molecular weight 2826 2216
Ion gyrofrequency (sec
1
) 180190 230300
Neutral diusion 305 10
3
10
5
coecient (m
2
sec
1
)
The terrestrial magnetic eld in the lower ionosphere at equatorial latti-
tudes is approximately B
0
= 0.3510
4
tesla. The earths radius is R
E
= 6371
km.
42
SOLAR PHYSICS PARAMETERS
24
Parameter Symbol Value Units
Total mass M

1.99 10
33
g
Radius R

6.96 10
10
cm
Surface gravity g

2.74 10
4
cms
2
Escape speed v

6.18 10
7
cms
1
Upward mass ux in spicules 1.6 10
9
g cm
2
s
1
Vertically integrated atmospheric density 4.28 g cm
2
Sunspot magnetic eld strength B
max
25003500 G
Surface eective temperature T
0
5770 K
Radiant power 1

3.83 10
33
erg s
1
Radiant ux density J 6.28 10
10
erg cm
2
s
1
Optical depth at 500 nm, measured
5
0.99
from photosphere
Astronomical unit (radius of earths orbit) AU 1.50 10
13
cm
Solar constant (intensity at 1 AU) f 1.36 10
6
erg cm
2
s
1
Chromosphere and Corona
25
Quiet Coronal Active
Parameter (Units)
Sun Hole Region
Chromospheric radiation losses
(erg cm
2
s
1
)
Low chromosphere 2 10
6
2 10
6
>

10
7
Middle chromosphere 2 10
6
2 10
6
10
7
Upper chromosphere 3 10
5
3 10
5
2 10
6
Total 4 10
6
4 10
6
>

2 10
7
Transition layer pressure (dyne cm
2
) 0.2 0.07 2
Coronal temperature (K) at 1.1 R

1.11.6 10
6
10
6
2.5 10
6
Coronal energy losses (erg cm
2
s
1
)
Conduction 2 10
5
6 10
4
10
5
10
7
Radiation 10
5
10
4
5 10
6
Solar Wind
<

5 10
4
7 10
5
< 10
5
Total 3 10
5
8 10
5
10
7
Solar wind mass loss (g cm
2
s
1
)
<

2 10
11
2 10
10
< 4 10
11
43
THERMONUCLEAR FUSION
26
Natural abundance of isotopes:
hydrogen n
D
/n
H
= 1.5 10
4
helium n
He
3
/n
He
4
= 1.3 10
6
lithium n
Li
6
/n
Li
7
= 0.08
Mass ratios: m
e
/m
D
= 2.72 10
4
= 1/3670
(m
e
/m
D
)
1/2
= 1.65 10
2
= 1/60.6
m
e
/m
T
= 1.82 10
4
= 1/5496
(m
e
/m
T
)
1/2
= 1.35 10
2
= 1/74.1
Absorbed radiation dose is measured in rads: 1 rad = 10
2
erg g
1
. The curie
(abbreviated Ci) is a measure of radioactivity: 1 curie = 3.710
10
counts sec
1
.
Fusion reactions (branching ratios are correct for energies near the cross section
peaks; a negative yield means the reaction is endothermic):
27
(1a) D + D
50%
T(1.01 MeV) + p(3.02 MeV)
(1b)
50%
He
3
(0.82 MeV) + n(2.45 MeV)
(2) D + T He
4
(3.5 MeV) + n(14.1 MeV)
(3) D + He
3
He
4
(3.6 MeV) + p(14.7 MeV)
(4) T + T He
4
+ 2n + 11.3 MeV
(5a) He
3
+ T
51%
He
4
+ p + n + 12.1 MeV
(5b)
43%
He
4
(4.8 MeV) + D(9.5 MeV)
(5c)
6%
He
5
(2.4 MeV) + p(11.9 MeV)
(6) p + Li
6
He
4
(1.7 MeV) + He
3
(2.3 MeV)
(7a) p + Li
7

20%
2 He
4
+ 17.3 MeV
(7b)
80%
Be
7
+ n 1.6 MeV
(8) D + Li
6
2He
4
+ 22.4 MeV
(9) p + B
11
3 He
4
+ 8.7 MeV
(10) n + Li
6
He
4
(2.1 MeV) + T(2.7 MeV)
The total cross section in barns (1 barn = 10
24
cm
2
) as a function of E, the
energy in keV of the incident particle [the rst ion on the left side of Eqs.
(1)(5)], assuming the target ion at rest, can be tted by
28a

T
(E) =
A
5
+
_
(A
4
A
3
E)
2
+ 1

1
A
2
E
_
exp(A
1
E
1/2
) 1

44
where the Duane coecients A
j
for the principal fusion reactions are as follows:
DD DD DT DHe
3
TT THe
3
(1a) (1b) (2) (3) (4) (5ac)
A
1
46.097 47.88 45.95 89.27 38.39 123.1
A
2
372 482 50200 25900 448 11250
A
3
4.36 10
4
3.08 10
4
1.368 10
2
3.98 10
3
1.02 10
3
0
A
4
1.220 1.177 1.076 1.297 2.09 0
A
5
0 0 409 647 0 0
Reaction rates v (in cm
3
sec
1
), averaged over Maxwellian distributions:
Temperature DD DT DHe
3
TT THe
3
(keV) (1a + 1b) (2) (3) (4) (5ac)
1.0 1.5 10
22
5.5 10
21
10
26
3.3 10
22
10
28
2.0 5.4 10
21
2.6 10
19
1.4 10
23
7.1 10
21
10
25
5.0 1.8 10
19
1.3 10
17
6.7 10
21
1.4 10
19
2.1 10
22
10.0 1.2 10
18
1.1 10
16
2.3 10
19
7.2 10
19
1.2 10
20
20.0 5.2 10
18
4.2 10
16
3.8 10
18
2.5 10
18
2.6 10
19
50.0 2.1 10
17
8.7 10
16
5.4 10
17
8.7 10
18
5.3 10
18
100.0 4.5 10
17
8.5 10
16
1.6 10
16
1.9 10
17
2.7 10
17
200.0 8.8 10
17
6.3 10
16
2.4 10
16
4.2 10
17
9.2 10
17
500.0 1.8 10
16
3.7 10
16
2.3 10
16
8.4 10
17
2.9 10
16
1000.0 2.2 10
16
2.7 10
16
1.8 10
16
8.0 10
17
5.2 10
16
For low energies (T
<

25 keV) the data may be represented by

(v)
DD
= 2.33 10
14
T
2/3
exp(18.76T
1/3
) cm
3
sec
1
;
(v)
DT
= 3.68 10
12
T
2/3
exp(19.94T
1/3
) cm
3
sec
1
,
where T is measured in keV.
A three-parameter model has also been developed for fusion cross-sections of
light nuclei.
28b
The power density released in the form of charged particles is
P
DD
= 3.3 10
13
n
D
2
(v)
DD
watt cm
3
(including the subsequent
prompt DT reaction only);
P
DT
= 5.6 10
13
n
D
n
T
(v)
DT
watt cm
3
;
P
DHe
3
= 2.9 10
12
n
D
n
He
3
(v)
DHe
3
watt cm
3
.
45
RELATIVISTIC ELECTRON BEAMS
Here = (1
2
)
1/2
is the relativistic scaling factor; quantities in
analytic formulas are expressed in SI or cgs units, as indicated; in numerical
formulas, I is in amperes (A), B is in gauss (G), electron linear density N is
in cm
1
, and temperature, voltage and energy are in MeV;
z
= v
z
/c; k is
Boltzmanns constant.
Relativistic electron gyroradius:
r
e
=
mc
2
eB
(
2
1)
1/2
(cgs) = 1.70 10
3
(
2
1)
1/2
B
1
cm.
Relativistic electron energy:
W = mc
2
= 0.511 MeV.
Bennett pinch condition:
I
2
= 2Nk(T
e
+T
i
)c
2
(cgs) = 3.20 10
4
N(T
e
+T
i
) A
2
.
Alfven-Lawson limit:
I
A
= (mc
3
/e)
z
(cgs) = (4mc/
0
e)
z
(SI) = 1.70 10
4

z
A.
The ratio of net current to I
A
is
I
I
A
=

.
Here = Nr
e
is the Budker number, where r
e
= e
2
/mc
2
= 2.82 10
13
cm
is the classical electron radius. Beam electron number density is
n
b
= 2.08 10
8
J
1
cm
3
,
where J is the current density in Acm
2
. For a uniform beam of radius a (in
cm),
n
b
= 6.63 10
7
Ia
2

1
cm
3
,
and
2r
e
a
=

.
46
Childs law: (non-relativistic) space-charge-limited current density between
parallel plates with voltage drop V (in MV) and separation d (in cm) is
J = 2.34 10
3
V
3/2
d
2
Acm
2
.
The saturated parapotential current (magnetically self-limited ow along equi-
potentials in pinched diodes and transmission lines) is
29
I
p
= 8.5 10
3
G ln
_
+ (
2
1)
1/2

A,
where G is a geometrical factor depending on the diode structure:
G =
w
2d
for parallel plane cathode and anode
of width w, separation d;
G =
_
ln
R
2
R
1
_
1
for cylinders of radii R
1
(inner) and R
2
(outer);
G =
R
c
d
0
for conical cathode of radius R
c
, maximum
separation d
0
(at r = R
c
) from plane anode.
For 0 ( 1), both I
A
and I
p
vanish.
The condition for a longitudinal magnetic eld B
z
to suppress lamentation
in a beam of current density J (in Acm
2
) is
B
z
> 47
z
(J)
1/2
G.
Voltage registered by Rogowski coil of minor cross-sectional area A, n turns,
major radius a, inductance L, external resistance R and capacitance C (all in
SI):
externally integrated V = (1/RC)(nA
0
I/2a);
self-integrating V = (R/L)(nA
0
I/2a) = RI/n.
X-ray production, target with average atomic number Z (V
<

5 MeV):
x-ray power/beam power = 7 10
4
ZV.
X-ray dose at 1 meter generated by an e-beam depositing total charge Q
coulombs while V 0.84V
max
in material with charge state Z:
D = 150V
2.8
max
QZ
1/2
rads.
47
BEAM INSTABILITIES
30
Name Conditions Saturation Mechanism
Electron- V
d
>

V
ej
, j = 1, 2 Electron trapping until
electron

V
ej
V
d
Buneman V
d
> (M/m)
1/3

V
i
, Electron trapping until
V
d
>

V
e

V
e
V
d
Beam-plasma V
b
> (n
p
/n
b
)
1/3

V
b
Trapping of beam electrons
Weak beam- V
b
< (n
p
/n
b
)
1/3

V
b
Quasilinear or nonlinear
plasma (mode coupling)
Beam-plasma

V
e
> V
b
>

V
b
Quasilinear or nonlinear
(hot-electron)
Ion acoustic T
e
T
i
, V
d
C
s
Quasilinear, ion tail form-
ation, nonlinear scattering,
or resonance broadening.
Anisotropic T
e
> 2T
e
Isotropization
temperature
(hydro)
Ion cyclotron V
d
> 20

V
i
(for Ion heating
T
e
T
i
)
Beam-cyclotron V
d
> C
s
Resonance broadening
(hydro)
Modied two- V
d
< (1 +)
1/2
V
A
, Trapping
stream (hydro) V
d
> C
s
Ion-ion (equal U < 2(1 +)
1/2
V
A
Ion trapping
beams)
Ion-ion (equal U < 2C
s
Ion trapping
beams)
For nomenclature, see p. 50.
48
Parameters of Most Unstable Mode
Name
Wave Group
Growth Rate Frequency Number Velocity
Electron-
1
2

e
0 0.9

e
V
d
0
electron
Buneman 0.7
_
m
M
_
1/3

e
0.4
_
m
M
_
1/3

e
V
d
2
3
V
d
Beam-plasma 0.7
_
n
b
n
p
_
1/3

e

e

e
V
b
2
3
V
b
0.4
_
n
b
n
p
_
1/3

e
Weak beam-
n
b
2n
p
_
V
b

V
b
_
2

e

e

e
V
b
3

V
2
e
V
b
plasma
Beam-plasma
_
n
b
n
p
_
1/2

V
e
V
b

e
V
b

V
e

e

1
D
V
b
(hot-electron)
Ion acoustic
_
m
M
_
1/2

i

i

1
D
C
s
Anisotropic
e

e
cos
e
r
1
e

V
e
temperature
(hydro)
Ion cyclotron 0.1
i
1.2
i
r
1
i
1
3

V
i
Beam-cyclotron 0.7
e
n
e
0.7
1
D
>

V
d
;
(hydro)
<

C
s
Modied two-
1
2

H
0.9
H
1.7

H
V
d
1
2
V
d
stream
(hydro)
Ion-ion (equal 0.4
H
0 1.2

H
U
0
beams)
Ion-ion (equal 0.4
i
0 1.2

i
U
0
beams)
For nomenclature, see p. 50.
49
In the preceding tables, subscripts e, i, d, b, p stand for electron, ion,
drift, beam, and plasma, respectively. Thermal velocities are denoted
by a bar. In addition, the following are used:
m electron mass r
e
, r
i
gyroradius
M ion mass plasma/magnetic energy
V velocity density ratio
T temperature V
A
Alfven speed
n
e
, n
i
number density
e
,
i
gyrofrequency
n harmonic number
H
hybrid gyrofrequency,
C
s
= (T
e
/M)
1/2
ion sound speed
H
2
=
e

e
,
i
plasma frequency U relative drift velocity of

D
Debye length two ion species
50
LASERS
System Parameters
Eciencies and power levels are approximate.
31
Power levels available (W)
Type
Wavelength
(m)
Eciency
Pulsed CW
CO
2
10.6 0.010.02 > 2 10
13
> 10
5
(pulsed)
CO 5 0.4 > 10
9
> 100
Holmium 2.06 0.030.1 > 10
7
80
Iodine 1.315 0.003 3 10
12

Nd-glass 1.06 1.25 10

15

Nd:YAG 1.064 10
9
> 10
4
Nd:YLF 1.045, 4 10
8
80
1.54,1.313
Nd:YVO4 1.064 > 20
Er:YAG 2.94 1.5 10
5

*Color center 14 10
3
5 10
8
1
*Ti:Sapphire 0.71.5 0.4
p
10
14
150
Ruby 0.6943 < 10
3
10
10
1
He-Ne 0.6328 10
4
15010
3
*Argon ion 0.450.60 10
3
5 10
4
150
*OPO 0.310 > 0.1
p
10
10
5
N
2
0.3371 0.0010.05 10
6

*Dye 0.31.1 10
3
5 10
7
> 100
Kr-F 0.26 0.08 10
12
500
Xenon 0.175 0.02 > 10
8

Ytterbium ber 1.051.1 0.55 5 10

7
10
4
Erbium ber 1.534 7 10
6
100
Semiconductor 0.3751.9 > 0.5 3 10
9
> 10
3
*Tunable sources lamp-driven diode-driven
Nd stands for Neodymium; Er stands for Erbium; Ti stands for Titanium;
YAG stands for YttriumAluminum Garnet; YLF stands for Yttrium Lithium
Fluoride; YVO5 stands for Yttrium Vanadate; OPO for Optical Parametric
Oscillator;
p
is pump laser eciency.
51
Formulas
An e-m wave with k j B has an index of refraction given by
n

= [1
2
pe
/(
ce
)]
1/2
,
where refers to the helicity. The rate of change of polarization angle as a
function of displacement s (Faraday rotation) is given by
d/ds = (k/2)(n

n
+
) = 2.36 10
4
NBf
2
cm
1
,
where N is the electron number density, B is the eld strength, and f is the
wave frequency, all in cgs.
The quiver velocity of an electron in an e-m eld of angular frequency
is
v
0
= eE
max
/m = 25.6I
1/2

0
cmsec
1
in terms of the laser ux I = cE
2
max
/8, with I in watt/cm
2
, laser wavelength

0
in m. The ratio of quiver energy to thermal energy is
W
qu
/W
th
= m
e
v
0
2
/2kT = 1.81 10
13

0
2
I/T,
where T is given in eV. For example, if I = 10
15
Wcm
2
,
0
= 1 m, T =
2 keV, then W
qu
/W
th
0.1.
Pondermotive force:
JJ = NE
2
)/8N
c
,
where
N
c
= 1.1 10
21

0
2
cm
3
.
For uniform illumination of a lens with f-number F, the diameter d at
focus (85% of the energy) and the depth of focus l (distance to rst zero in
intensity) are given by
d 2.44F/
DL
and l 2F
2
/
DL
.
Here is the beam divergence containing 85% of energy and
DL
is the
diraction-limited divergence:

DL
= 2.44/b,
where b is the aperture. These formulas are modied for nonuniform (such as
Gaussian) illumination of the lens or for pathological laser proles.
52
ATOMIC PHYSICS AND RADIATION
Energies and temperatures are in eV; all other units are cgs except where
noted. Z is the charge state (Z = 0 refers to a neutral atom); the subscript e
labels electrons. N refers to number density, n to principal quantum number.
Asterisk superscripts on level population densities denote local thermodynamic
equilibrium (LTE) values. Thus N
n
* is the LTE number density of atoms (or
ions) in level n.
Characteristic atomic collision cross section:
(1) a
0
2
= 8.80 10
17
cm
2
.
Binding energy of outer electron in level labelled by quantum numbers n, l:
(2) E
Z

(n, l) =
Z
2
E
H

(n
l
)
2
,
where E
H

= 13.6 eV is the hydrogen ionization energy and

l
= 0.75l
5
,
l
>

5, is the quantum defect.

Excitation and Decay
Cross section (Bethe approximation) for electron excitation by dipole
allowed transition m n (Refs. 32, 33):
(3)
mn
= 2.36 10
13
f
mn
g(n, m)
E
nm
cm
2
,
where f
mn
is the oscillator strength, g(n, m) is the Gaunt factor, is the
incident electron energy, and E
nm
= E
n
E
m
.
Electron excitation rate averaged over Maxwellian velocity distribution, X
mn
= N
e

mn
v) (Refs. 34, 35):
(4) X
mn
= 1.6 10
5
f
mn
g(n, m))N
e
E
nm
T
1/2
e
exp
_

E
nm
T
e
_
sec
1
,
where g(n, m)) denotes the thermal averaged Gaunt factor (generally 1 for
atoms, 0.2 for ions).
53
Rate for electron collisional deexcitation:
(5) Y
nm
= (N
m
*/N
n
*)X
mn
.
Here N
m
*/N
n
* = (g
m
/g
n
) exp(E
nm
/T
e
) is the Boltzmann relation for level
population densities, where g
n
is the statistical weight of level n.
Rate for spontaneous decay n m (Einstein A coecient)
34
(6) A
nm
= 4.3 10
7
(g
m
/g
n
)f
mn
(E
nm
)
2
sec
1
.
Intensity emitted per unit volume from the transition n m in an optically
thin plasma:
(7) I
nm
= 1.6 10
19
A
nm
N
n
E
nm
watt/cm
3
.
Condition for steady state in a corona model:
(8) N
0
N
e

0n
v) = N
n
A
n0
,
where the ground state is labelled by a zero subscript.
Hence for a transition n m in ions, where g(n, 0)) 0.2,
(9) I
nm
= 5.1 10
25
f
nm
g
m
N
e
N
0
g
0
T
1/2
e
_
E
nm
E
n0
_
3
exp
_

E
n0
T
e
_
watt
cm
3
.
Ionization and Recombination
In a general time-dependent situation the number density of the charge
state Z satises
(10)
dN(Z)
dt
= N
e
_
S(Z)N(Z) (Z)N(Z)
+S(Z 1)N(Z 1) + (Z + 1)N(Z + 1)
_
.
Here S(oZ) is the ionization rate. The recombination rate (Z) has the form
(Z) =
r
(Z) +N
e

3
(Z), where
r
and
3
are the radiative and three-body
recombination rates, respectively.
54
Classical ionization cross-section
36
for any atomic shell j
(11)
i
= 6 10
14
b
j
g
j
(x)/U
j
2
cm
2
.
Here b
j
is the number of shell electrons; U
j
is the binding energy of the ejected
electron; x = /U
j
, where is the incident electron energy; and g is a universal
function with a minimum value g
min
0.2 at x 4.
Ionization from ion ground state, averaged over Maxwellian electron distribu-
tion, for 0.02
<

T
e
/E
Z

<

100 (Ref. 35):

(12) S(Z) = 10
5
(T
e
/E
Z

)
1/2
(E
Z

)
3/2
(6.0 +T
e
/E
Z

)
exp
_

E
Z

T
e
_
cm
3
/sec,
where E
Z

is the ionization energy.

Electron-ion radiative recombination rate (e + N(Z) N(Z 1) + h)
for T
e
/Z
2
<

400 eV (Ref. 37):

(13)
r
(Z) = 5.2 10
14
Z
_
E
Z

T
e
_
1/2
_
0.43 +
1
2
ln(E
Z

/T
e
)
+0.469(E
Z

/T
e
)
1/3
_
cm
3
/sec.
For 1 eV < T
e
/Z
2
< 15 eV, this becomes approximately
35
(14)
r
(Z) = 2.7 10
13
Z
2
T
e
1/2
cm
3
/sec.
Collisional (three-body) recombination rate for singly ionized plasma:
38
(15)
3
= 8.75 10
27
T
e
4.5
cm
6
/sec.
Photoionization cross section for ions in level n, l (short-wavelength limit):
(16)
ph
(n, l) = 1.64 10
16
Z
5
/n
3
K
7+2l
cm
2
,
where K is the wavenumber in Rydbergs (1 Rydberg = 1.0974 10
5
cm
1
).
55
Ionization Equilibrium Models
Saha equilibrium:
39
(17)
N
e
N
1
*(Z)
N
n
*(Z 1)
= 6.0 10
21
g
Z
1
T
e
3/2
g
Z1
n
exp
_

E
Z

(n, l)
T
e
_
cm
3
,
where g
Z
n
is the statistical weight for level n of charge state Z and E
Z

(n, l)
is the ionization energy of the neutral atom initially in level (n, l), given by
Eq. (2).
In a steady state at high electron density,
(18)
N
e
N*(Z)
N*(Z 1)
=
S(Z 1)

3
,
a function only of T.
Conditions for LTE:
39
(a) Collisional and radiative excitation rates for a level n must satisfy
(19) Y
nm
>

10A
nm
.
(b) Electron density must satisfy
(20) N
e
>

7 10
18
Z
7
n
17/2
(T/E
Z

)
1/2
cm
3
.
Steady state condition in corona model:
(21)
N(Z 1)
N(Z)
=

r
S(Z 1)
.
Corona model is applicable if
40
(22) 10
12
t
I
1
< N
e
< 10
16
T
e
7/2
cm
3
,
where t
I
is the ionization time.
56
Radiation
N. B. Energies and temperatures are in eV; all other quantities are in
cgs units except where noted. Z is the charge state (Z = 0 refers to a neutral
atom); the subscript e labels electrons. N is number density.
Average radiative decay rate of a state with principal quantum number n is
(23) A
n
=

m<n
A
nm
= 1.6 10
10
Z
4
n
9/2
sec.
Natural linewidth (E in eV):
(24) E t = h = 4.14 10
15
eVsec,
where t is the lifetime of the line.
Doppler width:
(25) / = 7.7 10
5
(T/)
1/2
,
where is the mass of the emitting atom or ion scaled by the proton mass.
Optical depth for a Doppler-broadened line:
39
(26) = 3.5210
13
f
nm
(Mc
2
/kT)
1/2
NL = 5.410
9
f
mn
(/T)
1/2
NL,
where f
nm
is the absorption oscillator strength, is the wavelength, and L is
the physical depth of the plasma; M, N, and T are the mass, number density,
and temperature of the absorber; is M divided by the proton mass. Optically
thin means < 1.
Resonance absorption cross section at center of line:
(27)
=
c
= 5.6 10
13

2
/cm
2
.
Wien displacement law (wavelength of maximum black-body emission):
(28)
max
= 2.50 10
5
T
1
cm.
Radiation from the surface of a black body at temperature T:
(29) W = 1.03 10
5
T
4
watt/cm
2
.
57
Bremsstrahlung from hydrogen-like plasma:
26
(30) P
Br
= 1.69 10
32
N
e
T
e
1/2

_
Z
2
N(Z)

watt/cm
3
,
where the sum is over all ionization states Z.
Bremsstrahlung optical depth:
41
(31) = 5.0 10
38
N
e
N
i
Z
2
gLT
7/2
,
where g 1.2 is an average Gaunt factor and L is the physical path length.
Inverse bremsstrahlung absorption coecient
42
for radiation of angular fre-
quency :
(32) = 3.1 10
7
Zn
e
2
ln T
3/2

2
(1
2
p
/
2
)
1/2
cm
1
;
here is the electron thermal velocity divided by V , where V is the larger of
and
p
multiplied by the larger of Ze
2
/kT and h/(mkT)
1/2
.
Recombination (free-bound) radiation:
(33) P
r
= 1.69 10
32
N
e
T
e
1/2

_
Z
2
N(Z)
_
E
Z1

T
e
__
watt/cm
3
.
Cyclotron radiation
26
in magnetic eld B:
(34) P
c
= 6.21 10
28
B
2
N
e
T
e
watt/cm
3
.
For N
e
kT
e
= N
i
kT
i
= B
2
/16 ( = 1, isothermal plasma),
26
(35) P
c
= 5.00 10
38
N
2
e
T
2
e
watt/cm
3
.
Cyclotron radiation energy loss e-folding time for a single electron:
41
(36) t
c

9.0 10
8
B
2
2.5 +
sec,
where is the kinetic plus rest energy divided by the rest energy mc
2
.
Number of cyclotron harmonics
41
trapped in a medium of nite depth L:
(37) m
tr
= (57BL)
1/6
,
where = 8NkT/B
2
.
Line radiation is given by summing Eq. (9) over all species in the plasma.
58
ATOMIC SPECTROSCOPY
Spectroscopic notation combines observational and theoretical elements.
Observationally, spectral lines are grouped in series with line spacings which
decrease toward the series limit. Every line can be related theoretically to a
transition between two atomic states, each identied by its quantum numbers.
Ionization levels are indicated by roman numerals. Thus CI is unionized
carbon, CII is singly ionized, etc. The state of a one-electron atom (hydrogen)
or ion (He II, Li III, etc.) is specied by identifying the principal quantum
number n = 1, 2, . . . , the orbital angular momentum l = 0, 1, . . . , n 1, and
the spin angular momentum s =
1
2
. The total angular momentum j is the
magnitude of the vector sum of l and s, j = l
1
2
(j
1
2
). The letters s,
p, d, f, g, h, i, k, l, . . . , respectively, are associated with angular momenta
l = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, . . . . The atomic states of hydrogen and hydrogenic
ions are degenerate: neglecting ne structure, their energies depend only on n
according to
E
n
=
R

hcZ
2
n
2
1 +m/M
=
RyZ
2
n
2
,
where h is Plancks constant, c is the velocity of light, m is the electron mass,
M and Z are the mass and charge state of the nucleus, and
R

= 109, 737 cm
1
is the Rydberg constant. If E
n
is divided by hc, the result is in wavenumber
units. The energy associated with a transition m n is given by
E
mn
= Ry(1/m
2
1/n
2
),
with m < n (m > n) for absorption (emission) lines.
For hydrogen and hydrogenic ions the series of lines belonging to the
transitions m n have conventional names:
Transition 1 n 2 n 3 n 4 n 5 n 6 n
Name Lyman Balmer Paschen Brackett Pfund Humphreys
Successive lines in any series are denoted , , , etc. Thus the transition 1
3 gives rise to the Lyman- line. Relativistic eects, quantum electrodynamic
eects (e.g., the Lamb shift), and interactions between the nuclear magnetic
59
moment and the magnetic eld due to the electron produce small shifts and
splittings,
<

10
2
cm
1
; these last are called hyperne structure.
In many-electron atoms the electrons are grouped in closed and open
shells, with spectroscopic properties determined mainly by the outer shell.
Shell energies depend primarily on n; the shells corresponding to n = 1, 2,
3, . . . are called K, L, M, etc. A shell is made up of subshells of dierent
angular momenta, each labeled according to the values of n, l, and the number
of electrons it contains out of the maximum possible number, 2(2l + 1). For
example, 2p
5
indicates that there are 5 electrons in the subshell corresponding
to l = 1 (denoted by p) and n = 2.
In the lighter elements the electrons ll up subshells within each shell
in the order s, p, d, etc., and no shell acquires electrons until the lower shells
are full. In the heavier elements this rule does not always hold. But if a
particular subshell is lled in a noble gas, then the same subshell is lled in
the atoms of all elements that come later in the periodic table. The ground
state congurations of the noble gases are as follows:
He 1s
2
Ne 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
Ar 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
Kr 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
3d
10
4s
2
4p
6
Xe 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
3d
10
4s
2
4p
6
4d
10
5s
2
5p
6
Rn 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
3d
10
4s
2
4p
6
4d
10
4f
14
5s
2
5p
6
5d
10
6s
2
6p
6
Alkali metals (Li, Na, K, etc.) resemble hydrogen; their transitions are de-
scribed by giving n and l in the initial and nal states for the single outer
(valence) electron.
For general transitions in most atoms the atomic states are specied in
terms of the parity (1)
l
i
and the magnitudes of the orbital angular momen-
tum L = l
i
, the spin S = s
i
, and the total angular momentum J = L + S,
where all sums are carried out over the unlled subshells (the lled ones sum
to zero). If a magnetic eld is present the projections M
L
, M
S
, and M of
L, S, and J along the eld are also needed. The quantum numbers satisfy
]M
L
] L l, ]M
S
] S /2, and ]M] J L + S, where is the
number of electrons in the unlled subshell. Upper-case letters S, P, D, etc.,
stand for L = 0, 1, 2, etc., in analogy with the notation for a single electron.
For example, the ground state of Cl is described by 3p
5 2
P
o
3/2
. The rst part
indicates that there are 5 electrons in the subshell corresponding to n = 3 and
l = 1. (The closed inner subshells 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
, identical with the congura-
tion of Mg, are usually omitted.) The symbol P indicates that the angular
momenta of the outer electrons combine to give L = 1. The prex 2 repre-
sents the value of the multiplicity 2S +1 (the number of states with nearly the
same energy), which is equivalent to specifying S =
1
2
. The subscript 3/2 is
60
the value of J. The superscript o indicates that the state has odd parity; it
would be omitted if the state were even.
The notation for excited states is similar. For example, helium has a state
1s2s
3
S
1
which lies 19.72 eV (159, 856 cm
1
) above the ground state 1s
2 1
S
0
.
But the two terms do not combine (transitions between them do not occur)
because this would violate, e.g., the quantum-mechanical selection rule that
the parity must change from odd to even or from even to odd. For electric
dipole transitions (the only ones possible in the long-wavelength limit), other
selection rules are that the value of l of only one electron can change, and only
by l = 1; S = 0; L = 1 or 0; and J = 1 or 0 (but L = 0 does not
combine with L = 0 and J = 0 does not combine with J = 0). Transitions
are possible between the helium ground state (which has S = 0, L = 0, J = 0,
and even parity) and, e.g., the state 1s2p
1
P
o
1
(with S = 0, L = 1, J = 1,
odd parity, excitation energy 21.22 eV). These rules hold accurately only for
light atoms in the absence of strong electric or magnetic elds. Transitions
that obey the selection rules are called allowed; those that do not are called
forbidden.
The amount of information needed to adequately characterize a state in-
creases with the number of electrons; this is reected in the notation. Thus
43
OII has an allowed transition between the states 2p
2
3p

2
F
o
7/2
and 2p
2
(
1
D)3d
2
F
7/2
(and between the states obtained by changing
J from 7/2 to 5/2 in either or both terms). Here both states have two elec-
trons with n = 2 and l = 1; the closed subshells 1s
2
2s
2
are not shown. The
outer (n = 3) electron has l = 1 in the rst state and l = 2 in the second.
The prime indicates that if the outermost electron were removed by ionization,
the resulting ion would not be in its lowest energy state. The expression (
1
D)
give the multiplicity and total angular momentum of the parent term, i.e.,
the subshell immediately below the valence subshell; this is understood to be
the same in both states. (Grandparents, etc., sometimes have to be specied
in heavier atoms and ions.) Another example
43
is the allowed transition from
2p
2
(
3
P)3p
2
P
o
1/2
(or
2
P
o
3/2
) to 2p
2
(
1
D)3d
2
S
1/2
, in which there is a spin
ip (from antiparallel to parallel) in the n = 2, l = 1 subshell, as well as
changes from one state to the other in the value of l for the valence electron
and in L.
The description of ne structure, Stark and Zeeman eects, spectra of
highly ionized or heavy atoms, etc., is more complicated. The most important
dierence between optical and X-ray spectra is that the latter involve energy
changes of the inner electrons rather than the outer ones; often several electrons
participate.
61
COMPLEX (DUSTY) PLASMAS
Complex (dusty) plasmas (CDPs) may be regarded as a new and unusual
state of matter. CDPs contain charged microparticles (dust grains) in addition
to electrons, ions, and neutral gas. Electrostatic coupling between the grains
can vary over a wide range, so that the states of CDPs can change from weakly
coupled (gaseous) to crystalline. CDPs can be investigated at the kinetic level
(individual particles are easily visualized and relevant time scales are accessi-
ble). CDPs are of interest as a non-Hamiltonian system of interacting particles
and as a means to study generic fundamental physics of self-organization, pat-
tern formation, phase transitions, and scaling. Their discovery has therefore
opened new ways of precision investigations in many-particle physics.
Typical experimental dust properties
grain size (radius) a 0.330 m, mass m
d
310
7
310
13
g, number
density (in terms of the interparticle distance) n
d

3
10
3
10
7
cm
3
,
temperature T
d
3 10
2
10
2
eV.
Typical discharge (bulk) plasmas
gas pressure p 10
2
1 Torr, T
i
T
n
3 10
2
eV, v
T
i
7 10
4
cm/s
(Ar), T
e
0.3 3 eV, n
i
n
e
10
8
10
10
cm
3
, screening length
D

Di
20 200 m,
pi
2 10
6
2 10
7
s
1
(Ar). B elds up to B 3 T.
Dimensionless
Havnes parameter P = ]Z]n
d
/n
e
normalized charge z = ]Z]e
2
/kT
e
a
dust-dust scattering parameter
d
= Z
2
e
2
/kT
d

D
dust-plasma scattering parameter
e,i
= ]Z]e
2
/kT
e,i

D
coupling parameter = (Z
2
e
2
/kT
d
) exp(/
D
)
lattice parameter = /
D
particle parameter = a/
lattice magnetization parameter = /r
d
Typical experimental values: P 10
4
10
2
,z 24 (Z 10
3
10
5
electron
charges), < 10
3
, 0.3 10, 10
4
3 10
2
, < 1
Frequencies
dust plasma frequency
pd
= (4Z
2
e
2
n
d
/m
d
)
1/2
(]Z]
P
1+P
m
i
/m
d
)
1/2

pi
charge uctuation frequency
ch

1+z

2
(a/
D
)
pi
62
dust-gas friction rate
nd
10a
2
p/m
d
v
T
n
dust gyrofrequency
cd
= ZeB/m
d
c
Velocities
dust thermal velocity v
T
d
= (kT
d
/m
d
)
1/2
[
T
d
T
i
m
i
m
d
]
1/2
v
T
i
dust acoustic wave velocity C
DA
=
pd

D
(]Z]
P
1+P
m
i
/m
d
)
1/2
v
T
i
dust Alfven wave velocity v
Ad
= B/(4n
d
m
d
)
1/2
dust-acoustic Mach number V/C
DA
dust magnetic Mach number V/v
Ad
dust lattice (acoustic) wave velocity C
l,t
DL
=
pd

D
F
l,t
()
The range of the dust-lattice wavenumbers is K < The functions F
l,t
()
for longitudinal and transverse waves can be approximated
44,45
with accuracy
< 1% in the range 5:
F
l
2.70
1/2
(1 0.096 0.004
2
), F
t
0.51(1 0.039
2
),
Lengths
frictional dissipation length L

= v
T
d
/
nd
dust Coulomb radius R
Ce,i
= ]Z]e
2
/kT
e,i
dust gyroradius r
d
= v
T
d
/
cd
Grain Charging
The charge evolution equation is d]Z]/dt = I
i
I
e
. From orbital motion
limited (OML) theory
46
in the collisionless limit l
en(in)

D
a:
I
e
=

8a
2
n
e
v
T
e
exp(z), I
i
=

8a
2
n
i
v
T
i
_
1 +
T
e
T
i
z
_
.
Grains are charged negatively. The grain charge can vary in response to spatial
and temporal variations of the plasma. Charge uctuations are always present,
with frequency
ch
. Other charging mechanisms are photoemission, secondary
emission, thermionic emission, eld emission, etc. Charged dust grains change
the plasma composition, keeping quasineutrality. A measure of this is the
Havnes parameter P = ]Z]n
d
/n
e
. The balance of I
e
and I
i
yields
exp(z) =
_
m
i
m
e
T
i
T
e
_
1/2
_
1 +
T
e
T
i
z
_
[1 +P(z)]
63
When the relative charge density of dust is large, P 1, the grain charge Z
monotonically decreases.
Forces and momentum transfer
In addition to the usual electromagnetic forces, grains in complex plasmas are
also subject to: gravity force F
g
= m
d
g; thermophoretic force
F
th
=
4

2
15
(a
2
/v
T
n
)
n
T
n
(where
n
is the coecient of gas thermal conductivity); forces associated
with the momentum transfer from other species, F

= m
d

d
V
d
, i.e.,
neutral, ion, and electron drag. For collisions between charged particles, two
limiting cases are distinguished by the magnitude of the scattering parameter

. When

1 the result is independent of the sign of the potential. When

1, the results for repulsive and attractive interaction potentials are

dierent. For typical complex plasmas the hierarchy of scattering parameters
is
e
( 0.01 0.3)
i
( 1 30)
d
( 10
3
3 10
4
). The generic
expressions for dierent types of collisions are
47

d
= (4

2/3)(m

/m
d
)a
2
n

v
T

d
Electron-dust collisions

ed

1
2
z
2

ed

e
1
Ion-dust collisions

id
=
_
1
2
z
2
(T
e
/T
i
)
2

id

i
< 5
2(
D
/a)
2
(ln
2

i
+ 2 ln
i
+ 2),
i
> 13
Dust-dust collisons

dd
=
_
z
2
d

dd

d
1
(
D
/a)
2
[ln 4
d
ln ln 4
d
],
d
1
where z
d
Z
2
e
2
/akT
d
.
For
dd

nd
the complex plasma is in a two-phase state, and for
nd

dd
we have merely tracer particles (dust-neutral gas interaction dominates). The
momentum transfer cross section is proportional to the Coulomb logarithm

d
when the Coulomb scattering theory is applicable. It is determined by
integration over the impact parameters, from
min
to
max
.
min
is due to nite
grain size and is given by OML theory.
max
=
D
for repulsive interaction
(applicable for

1), and
max
=
D
(1+2

)
1/2
for attractive interaction
(applicable up to

< 5).
64
For repulsive interaction (electron-dust and dust-dust)

d
= z

_

0
e
z

x
ln[1 + 4(
D
/a

)
2
x
2
]dx 2z

_

1
e
z

x
ln(2x 1)dx,
where z
e
= z, a
e
= a, and a
d
= 2a.
For ion-dust (attraction)

id
z
_

0
e
zx
ln
_
1 + 2(T
i
/T
e
)(
D
/a)x
1 + 2(T
i
/T
e
)x
_
dx.
For
dd

nd
the complex plasma behaves like a one phase system (dust-dust
interaction dominates).
Phase Diagram of Complex Plasmas
The gure below represents dierent phase states of CDPs as functions of
the electrostatic coupling parameter and or , respectively. The verti-
cal dashed line at = 1 conditionally divides the system into Coulomb and
Yukawa parts. With respect to the usual plasma phase, in the diagram be-
low the complex plasmas are located mostly in the strong coupling regime
(equivalent to the top left corner).
Regions I (V) represent Coulomb (Yukawa) crystals, the crystallization condi-
tion is
48
> 106(1 + +
2
/2)
1
. Regions II (VI) are for Coulomb (Yukawa)
non-ideal plasmas the characteristic range of dust-dust interaction (in terms
of the momentum transfer) is larger than the intergrain distance (in terms of
the Wigner-Seitz radius), (/)
1/2
> (4/3)
1/3
, which implies that the
interaction is essentially multiparticle.
Regions III (VII and VIII) correspond to
Coulomb (Yukawa) ideal gases. The range
of dust-dust interaction is smaller than the
intergrain distance and only pair collisions
are important. In addition, in the region
VIII the pair Yukawa interaction asymp-
totically reduces to the hard sphere limit,
forming a Yukawa granular medium. In
region IV the electrostatic interaction is
unimportant and the system is like a uaual
granular medium.
0.1 1 10
10
-4
10
-2
10
0
10
2
10
4
10
1
10
2
10
3

-1
=/a
VIII VII
VI
V
IV
III
II
I

=/
65
REFERENCES
When any of the formulas and data in this collection are referenced
in research publications, it is suggested that the original source be cited rather
than the Formulary. Most of this material is well known and, for all practical
purposes, is in the public domain. Numerous colleagues and readers, too
numerous to list by name, have helped in collecting and shaping the Formulary
into its present form; they are sincerely thanked for their eorts.
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K. R. Lang, Astrophysical Formulae, 2nd edition (Springer, New York,
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Additional material can also be found in D. L. Book, NRL Memorandum Re-
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1. See M. Abramowitz and I. A. Stegun, Eds., Handbook of Mathematical
Functions (Dover, New York, 1968), pp. 13, for a tabulation of some
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66
5. W. D. Hayes, A Collection of Vector Formulas, Princeton University,
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67
18. B. D. Fried, C. L. Hedrick, J. McCune, Two-Pole Approximation for the
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68
31. Table prepared from data compiled by J. M. McMahon (personal com-
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69
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70
AFTERWORD
The NRL Plasma Formulary originated over twenty ve years ago
and has been revised several times during this period. The guiding spirit and
person primarily responsible for its existence is Dr. David Book. I am indebted
to Dave for providing me with the T
E
X les for the Formulary and his con-
tinued suggestions for improvement. The Formulary has been set in T
E
X by
Dave Book, Todd Brun, and Robert Scott. I thank readers for communicating
typographical errors to me as well as suggestions for improvements.
Finally, I thank Dr. Sidney Ossakow for his support of the NRL Plasma
Formulary during his tenure as Superintendent of the Plasma Physics Division.
He was a steadfast advocate of this important project at the Naval Research
Laboratory.
71