1.

) When turning to the high power objective you should always look at the objective from the side of your microscope so that the objective does not hit or damage the slide that is why you start with low power objective lens" This is not the reason as to WHY you should use the low power lens first. This is a precautionary step you must take when moving from the low power lens to the high power Len's. You should use the low power lens first because it is easier to find objects on the slide at this power. When the specimen has been located using the coarse focus wheel, use the fine focus wheel to sharpen the image as much as possible. The slide should be positioned so that the specimen is in the centre of your field of view. Then while looking from the side turn the high power lens into place and use the fine focus wheel to sharpen the image. If you were to use the high power lens first you could spend a lot more time searching around the slide for a glimpse of what you are meant to see. You are not guaranteed to even find it as the focus could be completely off.
2.) When are they use, LPO, HPO, IOI LPO- A low power objective is essential on any microscope, It allows you to quickly scan a large

area of the specimen, and to locate those areas which need closer study with a high power objective. For example, a histologic section of liver might measure 20 by 40 mm. With a 4x objective you can scan the entire piece of tissue in a minute or less. If there is a 1 mm tumor somewhere in the section, you will find it during this scan, and can them zoom in on it with the high power objectives. Trying to scan the entire slide with a 40x objective would take a long time because in any given field you can see only 1/100 the surface area included in a 4x scan), and you could easily miss a 1 mm tumor entirely. HPO- With a series of three lenses, the first one is usually about 4x (4 times) magnification, the next is 10x, and the highest, or "high power objective", is generally 40x.The magnification achievable is a multiple of the eyepiece and the objective lens. If the eyepiece is 10x and the low power objective is 4x, the total magnification will be 40x.When examining a specimen slide it is usual to start with the lowest magnification to orient the view. The next objective is then rotated into use and the object examined again. If more detail is needed, the high power objective will be used. Some microscopes have a fourth objective (100x) that is oil-based for greater clarity at 1,000x magnification. It is used by placing a drop of oil on the specimen slide and lowering the objective until it is just in contact with the oil, giving less distortion than viewing through air at that magnification. OIO- The most powerful lens of the light microscope is the 100x oil immersion objective. Because light is refracted every time it passes through a medium with a different refractive index, (air to glass or vice versa) the quality of the image is reduced with each passage. Thus, by

reducing the number of such passages to a minimum, the clarity, brilliance and resolving power is preserved. You can see the difference between 400x and 1000x in teh image to the left. Immersion oil has been formulated so that it has a refractive index identical to that of glass. (It is written on the label of the immersion oil container as n D 25 : record it in your notebook.) Thus there is no refraction of light when it passes from glass to oil and vice versa. You can see the effect of this by removing the glass dropper rod from the oil, and reimmersing it. What happens to the image of the glass rod? How do you explain this observation? Thus, two changes in refractive index can be eliminated by placing a drop of immersion oil on the specimen, and immersing the 100x oil immersion objective directly into the drop. You should be struck by the clarity that results.
3.) In light microscopy, oil immersion is a technique used to increase the resolution of a microscope. This is achieved by immersing both the objective lens and the specimen in a transparent oil of high refractive index, thereby increasing the numerical aperture of the objective lens. Immersion oils are transparent oils that have specific optical and viscosity characteristics necessary for use in microscopy. An oil immersion objective is an objective lens specially designed to be used in this way. Many condensers also give optimal resolution when the condenser lens is immersed in oil. Cedar wood oil is used as an imersion oil. application of 100x would result in refraction of light as it passes through the glass slide and air. immersion oil have the same refraction index with the glass(objective lens) so it can avoid the refraction of light. we can see the image of specimen clearly.

Coarse adjustment is used to focus the image on the microscope under low or medium power by using larger motions of the lens. (Note: Coarse adjustment should never be used during High power) Fine adjustment is used to focus the image on the microscope of only high power by using very tiny motions of the lens. Coarse vs Fine Adjustment Just about any device can be adjusted to suite the preference of the user. In most devices, there is only one adjustment knob for each controllable element. But in certain cases, there are two adjustment knobs; labeled as coarse and fine adjustments. The main difference between the two is in how large is the increment in each step. With coarse, a small movement results in a large jump, while the opposite is true in fine. Another difference between coarse and fine adjustment is the range that they have. The coarse adjustment covers the entire range from minimum to maximum. In contrast, the fine adjustment only covers a fraction of the entire range. The bare minimum range for the fine adjustment is the

discrete step increment of the coarse adjustment, in order to cover the entire range. It can also be larger, depending on the designer of the device. To clearly illustrate how coarse and fine adjustments work together, picture an adjustment that has a range of 0 to 100. For coarse, each step increments by 10 and 1 for fine. If you only have a coarse adjustment, it will be quick and easy to go from minimum to maximum but you cannot achieve an exact value like 15 and you have to settle for either 10 or 20. If you only have fine, you can select any value but you have a lot of steps to take in order to go from minimum to maximum. If you have both coarse and fine adjustment, you get the pros of both. Using both coarse and fine adjustments affords the user increased control. You have the increased resolution provided by the fine adjustment, as well as the ease of larger increments provided by the coarse adjustment. Having both coarse and fine adjustments is not very common; and the devices that do so, have them for a reason. These devices need to be fine-tuned in order to produce the desired output. Summary: 1.Coarse adjustment has steps in large increments while fine adjustment has steps in much smaller increments 2.Coarse adjustment covers the entire range while fine adjustment only covers a fraction of the entire range

Labayog, Glen Norwel M. BMLS1 1.) Equilibrium

Economic equilibrium
Price of market balance:

P - price Q - quantity of good S - supply D - demand P0 - price of marketing A - surplus of demand - when P<P0 B - surplus of supply - when P>P0

In economics, economic equilibrium is a state of the world where economic forces are balanced and in the absence of external influences the (equilibrium) values of economic variables will not change. It is the point at which quantity demanded and quantity supplied are equal.[1] Market equilibrium, for example, refers to a condition where a market price is established through competition such that the amount of goods or services sought by buyers is equal to the amount of goods or services produced by sellers. This price is often called the equilibrium price or market clearing price and will tend not to change unless demand or supply changes. A condition or state in which economic forces are balanced. These economic variables will be unchanged from their equilibrium values in the absence of external influences. Economic equilibrium may also be defined as the point where supply equals demand for a product the equilibrium price is where the hypothetical supply and demand curves intersect. The term 'economic equilibrium' can also be applied to any number of variables, such as the interest rate that allows for the greatest growth of the banking and non-financial sector. Economic equilibrium can be static or dynamic and may exist in a single market or multiple markets. It can be disrupted by exogenous factors, such as a change in consumer preferences, which can lead to a drop in demand and consequently a condition of oversupply in the market. In this case, a temporary state of disequilibrium will prevail until a new equilibrium price or level is established, at which point the market will revert back to economic equilibrium. When the price is above the equifferent points of economic equilibrium. In most simple microeconomic stories of supply and demand in a market a static equilibrium is observed in a market; however, economic equilibrium can exist in non-market relationships and can be dynamic. Equilibrium may also be multi-market or general, as opposed to the partial equilibrium of a single market.

In economics, the term equilibrium is used to suggest a state of "balance" between supply forces and demand forces. For example, an increase in supply will disrupt the equilibrium, leading to lower prices. Eventually, a new equilibrium will be attained in most markets. Then, there will be no change in price or the amount of output bought and sold until there is an exogenous shift in supply or demand (such as changes in technology or tastes). That is, there are no endogenous forces leading to the price or the quantity. Not all economic equilibria are stable. For an equilibrium to be stable, a small deviation from equilibrium leads to economic forces that returns an economic sub-system toward the original equilibrium. For example, if a movement out of supply/demand equilibrium leads to an excess supply (surplus, or glut), that excess induces price declines which return the market to a situation where the quantity demanded equals the quantity supplied. If supply and demand curves intersect more than once, then both stable and unstable equilibria are found. Most economists e.g., Paul Samuelson[2]:Ch.3,p.52 caution against attaching a normative meaning (value judgement) to the equilibrium price. For example, food markets may be in equilibrium at the same time that people are starving (because they cannot afford to pay the high equilibrium price). Indeed, this occurred during the Great Famine in Ireland in 184552, where food was exported though people were starving, due to the greater profits in selling to the English the equilibrium price of the Irish-British market for potatoes was above the price that Irish farmers could afford, and thus (among other reasons) they starved.[3]

Economics Basics: Demand and Supply

Supply and demand is perhaps one of the most fundamental concepts of economics and it is the backbone of a market economy. Demand refers to how much (quantity) of a product or service is desired by buyers. The quantity demanded is the amount of a product people are willing to buy at a certain price; the relationship between price and quantity demanded is known as the demand relationship. Supply represents how much the market can offer. The quantity supplied refers to the amount of a certain good producers are willing to supply when receiving a certain price. The correlation between price and how much of a good or service is supplied to the market is known as the supply relationship. Price, therefore, is a reflection of supply and demand. The relationship between demand and supply underlie the forces behind the allocation of resources. In market economy theories, demand and supply theory will allocate resources in the most efficient way possible. How? Let us take a closer look at the law of demand and the law of supply. A. The Law of Demand The law of demand states that, if all other factors remain equal, the higher the price of a good, the less people will demand that good. In other words, the higher the price, the lower the quantity demanded. The amount of a good that buyers purchase at a higher price is less because as the price of a good goes up, so does the opportunity cost of buying that good. As a result, people will naturally avoid buying a product that will force them to forgo the consumption of something else they value more. The chart below shows that the curve is a downward slope.

A, B and C are points on the demand curve. Each point on the curve reflects a direct correlation between quantity demanded (Q) and price (P). So, at point A, the quantity demanded will be Q1 and the price will be P1, and so on. The demand relationship curve illustrates the negative relationship between price and quantity demanded. The higher the price of a good the lower the quantity demanded (A), and the lower the price, the more the good will be in demand (C). B. The Law of Supply Like the law of demand, the law of supply demonstrates the quantities that will be sold at a certain price. But unlike the law of demand, the supply relationship shows an upward slope. This means that the higher the price, the higher the quantity supplied. Producers supply more at a higher price because selling a higher quantity at a higher price increases revenue.

A, B and C are points on the supply curve. Each point on the curve reflects a direct correlation between

quantity supplied (Q) and price (P). At point B, the quantity supplied will be Q2 and the price will be P2, and so on. (To learn how economic factors are used in currency trading, read Forex Walkthrough: Economics.) Time and Supply Unlike the demand relationship, however, the supply relationship is a factor of time. Time is important to supply because suppliers must, but cannot always, react quickly to a change in demand or price. So it is important to try and determine whether a price change that is caused by demand will be temporary or permanent. Active Traders! Join the discussion at TradersLaboratory.com Let's say there's a sudden increase in the demand and price for umbrellas in an unexpected rainy season; suppliers may simply accommodate demand by using their production equipment more intensively. If, however, there is a climate change, and the population will need umbrellas year-round, the change in demand and price will be expected to be long term; suppliers will have to change their equipment and production facilities in order to meet the long-term levels of demand. C. Supply and Demand Relationship Now that we know the laws of supply and demand, let's turn to an example to show how supply and demand affect price. Imagine that a special edition CD of your favorite band is released for $20. Because the record company's previous analysis showed that consumers will not demand CDs at a price higher than $20, only ten CDs were released because the opportunity cost is too high for suppliers to produce more. If, however, the ten CDs are demanded by 20 people, the price will subsequently rise because, according to the demand relationship, as demand increases, so does the price. Consequently, the rise in price should prompt more CDs to be supplied as the supply relationship shows that the higher the price, the higher the quantity supplied. If, however, there are 30 CDs produced and demand is still at 20, the price will not be pushed up because the supply more than accommodates demand. In fact after the 20 consumers have been satisfied with their CD purchases, the price of the leftover CDs may drop as CD producers attempt to sell the remaining ten CDs. The lower price will then make the CD more available to people who had previously decided that the opportunity cost of buying the CD at $20 was too high. D. Equilibrium When supply and demand are equal (i.e. when the supply function and demand function intersect) the economy is said to be at equilibrium. At this point, the allocation of goods is at its most efficient because the amount of goods being supplied is exactly the same as the amount of goods being demanded. Thus, everyone (individuals, firms, or countries) is satisfied with the current economic condition. At the given price, suppliers are selling all the goods that they have produced and consumers are getting all the goods that they are demanding.

As you can see on the chart, equilibrium occurs at the intersection of the demand and supply curve, which indicates no allocative inefficiency. At this point, the price of the goods will be P* and the quantity will be Q*. These figures are referred to as equilibrium price and quantity. In the real market place equilibrium can only ever be reached in theory, so the prices of goods and services are constantly changing in relation to fluctuations in demand and supply. E. Disequilibrium Disequilibrium occurs whenever the price or quantity is not equal to P* or Q*. 1. Excess Supply If the price is set too high, excess supply will be created within the economy and there will be allocative inefficiency.

At price P1 the quantity of goods that the producers wish to supply is indicated by Q2. At P1, however, the quantity that the consumers want to consume is at Q1, a quantity much less than Q2. Because Q2 is greater than Q1, too much is being produced and too little is being consumed. The suppliers are trying to produce more goods, which they hope to sell to increase profits, but those consuming the goods will find the product less attractive and purchase less because the price is too high. 2. Excess Demand Excess demand is created when price is set below the equilibrium price. Because the price is so low, too many consumers want the good while producers are not making enough of it.

In this situation, at price P1, the quantity of goods demanded by consumers at this price is Q2. Conversely, the quantity of goods that producers are willing to produce at this price is Q1. Thus, there are too few goods being produced to satisfy the wants (demand) of the consumers. However, as consumers have to compete with one other to buy the good at this price, the demand will push the price up, making suppliers want to supply more and bringing the price closer to its equilibrium.

F. Shifts vs. Movement For economics, the movements and shifts in relation to the supply and demand curves represent very different market phenomena: 1. Movements A movement refers to a change along a curve. On the demand curve, a movement denotes a change in

both price and quantity demanded from one point to another on the curve. The movement implies that the demand relationship remains consistent. Therefore, a movement along the demand curve will occur when the price of the good changes and the quantity demanded changes in accordance to the original demand relationship. In other words, a movement occurs when a change in the quantity demanded is caused only by a change in price, and vice versa.

Like a movement along the demand curve, a movement along the supply curve means that the supply relationship remains consistent. Therefore, a movement along the supply curve will occur when the price of the good changes and the quantity supplied changes in accordance to the original supply relationship. In other words, a movement occurs when a change in quantity supplied is caused only by a change in price, and vice versa.

2. Shifts A shift in a demand or supply curve occurs when a good's quantity demanded or supplied changes even though price remains the same. For instance, if the price for a bottle of beer was $2 and the quantity of beer demanded increased from Q1 to Q2, then there would be a shift in the demand for beer. Shifts in the demand curve imply that the original demand relationship has changed, meaning that quantity demand is affected by a factor other than price. A shift in the demand relationship would occur if, for instance, beer suddenly became the only type of alcohol available for consumption.

Conversely, if the price for a bottle of beer was $2 and the quantity supplied decreased from Q1 to Q2, then there would be a shift in the supply of beer. Like a shift in the demand curve, a shift in the supply curve implies that the original supply curve has changed, meaning that the quantity supplied is effected by a factor other than price. A shift in the supply curve would occur if, for instance, a natural disaster

caused a mass shortage of hops; beer manufacturers would be forced to supply less beer for the same price.