CIVN 4000

Timber as a structural material

Presented by Esina T Ndoro
 Timber
• Timber is one of the oldest construction materials.
– Timber is a term used to describe structural products of wood, and the
term ‘wood’ is often used to describe furniture and other non-
structural products.
– It is commonly used to manufacture frames and support structures
such as beams, trusses etc.
– It is also used in the mining as support and rail transportation industry
(to make rail slippers).
– In South Africa concrete, bricks and steel are the most commonly used
construction materials.

• Trees are the primary source of timber and there are an

estimated 100 000 tree species in the world.
– Trees can be classified into two main groups i.e. deciduous and
coniferous.
• Deciduous trees have broad leaves which are seasonal.
• Coniferous trees are ever green and have long pointed needle like, flat
scaled leaves which only fall when they are old.
• Southern Africa has approximately 1700 recorded native tree species.
 Timber
Coniferous Deciduous

Source:www.britannica.com-516 × 300-Search by image

 Timber
Number of tree species per Country in Ten Countries with the largest area of
the World productive forest plantations

Source:http://www.grida.no/graphicslib/detail/number-of-tree-species-per-country-in-the-world_11a4#
 Timber
• Wood is the porous and fibrous structural tissue found in
the stems and roots of trees and other plants.
– The term wood may also refer to other plant materials with comparable
properties and engineered materials such wood chips and fibres.

• Wood is a complex fibre with a composite structure.

– The difference in structure occurs not only between different
species but also between trees of the same species grown in
different environments or different parts of a single tree.

• Wood is made up of water, cellulose (41–43% excluding

water ), hemicellulose (20% in deciduous trees and 30% in
coniferous excluding water), lignin (27% in coniferous wood
and 23% in deciduous trees excluding water ) and
extractives.
 Timber
• Cellulose is a crystalline polymer derived from glucose.
– imparts strength and stiffness.

• Hemicellulose consists of polysaccharides (mainly five-carbon

sugars) that are linked in an irregular manner, in contrast to
the cellulose.

• Lignin is an integral part of the secondary cell walls and it fills

the spaces in the cell walls between cellulose and
hemicellulose.
– imparts rigidity and compressive strength.

• Extractives consist of chemical substances and do not form

part of the basic structure of timber.
– They are responsible for colour, odour, fire resistance and
hygroscopicity.
– Hygroscopicity is the measurement of a material's ability to absorb or
release water as a function of humidity (i.e. water activity).
 Timber
Structure of a tree

Wood unsuitable
for structural
timber (30-40%)

Wood suitable for

structural timber
(60-70%)

Source: http://www.infovisual.info/01/002_en.html
 Timber
• The elemental composition of wood varies from one tree
species to another.
– It consists of approximately C (50%), O (42%), H(6%), N (1%), and other
elements (1%) i.e. Ca, K, Na, Mg, Fe, S, Cl, Si and P.

• Bark- is the outermost layer of tree trunks, branches, stems

and roots of woody plants.
– It consists of the inner bark and the outer bark.
• The outer bark is made up of dead cells and the inner bark (phloem) is made up of a thin layer
of living cells which play an important role in the transportation of water and nutrients within a
tree.

• Sapwood /alburnum-is a layer between the bark and the

heartwood.
– It is a living layer where sap flows.
• Its principal functions are to transport water from the roots to the leaves and to
store up and give back according to the season reserves prepared in the leaves.
– All wood in a tree is first formed as sapwood and the more leaves a tree
bears and the more vigorous its growth, the larger the volume of sapwood
required.
 Timber
Anatomy of a tree trunk
Pith
Heartwood
Sap wood
Radial surface

Growth Transverse
rings surface

Inner bark

Outer bark Tangential

surface

Source: http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/607298/trunk
 Timber

• Heartwood/duram is layer between the sapwood and the

pith.
– It is harder and darker than sapwood.
– It is non-living and develops in the centre of the tree as it grows.

• Pith/medulla, is central layer encircled by the heartwood.

– It is composed of soft, spongy parenchyma cells, which store and
transport nutrients throughout the tree.
 Timber
Structure of wood
• Timber is a unique construction material because it does not
exhibit homogenous structural properties e.g. strength in one
plane may not be exhibited in other planes.

• Wood is an orthotropic material (also anisotropic) i.e. it has

unique and independent mechanical properties in the direction
of three mutually perpendicular axes: longitudinal, radial, and
tangential.
• material properties are independent of direction within each
plane.
• the longitudinal axis L is parallel to the fibre (grain); the radial
axis R is normal to the growth rings (perpendicular to the grain
in the radial direction); and the tangential axis T is
perpendicular to the grain but tangential to the growth rings.
 Timber
Structure of wood

Source:http://www.ggi-myanmar.com/wood/

Source:http://grandpacliff.com/Plants/Glossary-Plants.htm
 Timber
Structure of wood
• Timber has a relatively high Energy/Stiffness and Strength/weight ratio
of construction materials
strength to weight ratio and
low energy to stiffness ratio.
10000 30
9000

• Relatively low energy and 8000

25

7000
less natural resources are 6000
20

consumed during timber 5000

4000
15
Energy/Stiffness
Strength/Weight
production in comparison to 3000
10

2000
other construction 1000
5

materials. 0 0
 Timber
Hard and soft wood
• Wood is classified as either hardwood or softwood based on
its biology and not strength hence timber is too.
– Softwoods are not necessarily softer than hardwoods, in both groups
there is an enormous variation in actual wood hardness.

• Hardwood is wood from deciduous trees (dicot angiosperm

trees/flowering trees) e.g. jacaranda
– Is made up of short, thin fibres with pores and vessels (they have a more
complex structure in comparison to softwoods).

• Softwood is wood from coniferous trees (monocot

gymnosperm trees) e.g. conifers
– Is made up of long tracheid and they are the source of about 80% of the
world's timber.
 Timber
Structure of wood

Source: lumberjocks.com-593 × 450-Search by image

Parts of a Tree
 Timber
Hard and soft wood
Hardwood Softwood

Comes from deciduous trees ; trees are Comes from coniferous trees which usually have needles
usually broad-leaved. Has vessel and cones. Medullary rays and tracheid transport water
elements that transport water and produce sap. When viewed under a microscope,
Definition throughout the wood; under a softwoods have no visible pores because of tracheid.
microscope, these elements appear as About 80% of all timber comes from softwood.
pores.
Examples of hardwood trees include Examples of softwood trees are cedar, Douglas fir, juniper,
Examples alder, balsa, beech, hickory, mahogany, pine, redwood, spruce, and yew.
maple, oak, teak, and walnut.
Hardwood is typically more expensive Softwood is typically less expensive compared to
Cost
than softwood. hardwood.

Growth Hardwood has a slow growth rate. Softwood has a fast rate of growth.

Hardwoods shed their leaves seasonally Softwoods tend to keep their needles throughout the year.
Shedding of leaves
i.e. in autumn and winter.

Fire Resistance Significant Poor

 Timber
Sawing
• Timber is cut into different
shapes and sizes i.e. sawn
in different ways e.g.
– Through and through/plain
sawing
– Quarter sawing
– Rift/Billet sawing

• Some of the defects in

timber are a result of how it
is sawn.

www.blog.carbideprocessors.com
 Timber
Sawing
• Plain/through and through sawn timber has its 'face' (the
wide surface) cut at a tangent to the growth rings. So the
'edge' (the narrow surface) cuts across the growth rings like a
radius.

• Quarter sawn timber has its face cut radially and the edge is
tangential.

• Rift sawn timber is cut radially such that the faces are at right
angles to the growth rings.

• The difference in growth ring orientation will mean a

difference in shrinkage rates of the member as tangential
shrinkage is greater than radial shrinkage.
 Timber
Sawing

www.aboutcivil.org

Source: https://nationalvetcontent.edu.au

www.horizon-custom-homes.com
 Timber
Shrinkage and Seasoning
• Green timber is wood that has been recently cut/felled and
has not had the opportunity to dry/season (evaporation of
the internal moisture).
– Green wood is considered to have 100% moisture content relative to
seasoned wood which is considered to between 18% and 20%.
– During seasoning significant shrinkage in observed following the reduction
of the moisture content to levels below the fibre saturation point (35-25%
moisture reduction).
• Water in timber resides between the fibres (free water) and in the cell structure
(bound water).
– Timber will change dimensions during seasoning depending on the
atmospheric humidity/moisture content, and the changes are known as
movement.
– Timber will shrink at different rates depending on its width, thickness, and
how it was sawn/ cut e.g. a back sawn timber member will shrink about
twice as much across its face in comparison to quarter sawn member.
• If a structure is sensitive to shrinkage timber used must be sawn in manner that
reduces shrinkage.
 Timber
Shrinkage and seasoning
• Seasoning is the name given to the methods of drying timber
i.e. natural drying or air drying, and artificial drying i.e. kiln
drying
– Timber can be dried to any desired moisture content by conventional or solar
kiln drying, but in air drying, moisture contents of less than 18% are difficult to
attain.

• Shrinkage is the change in dimensions in timber as it dries

from 'green' to a seasoned condition.
– Shrinkage occurs in three directions: radial, tangential and longitudinal.
– The most significant shrinkage of timber occurs at right angles to the direction
of the grain.

• Moisture/water present in timber resides between the fibres (free

water) and in the cell structure (bound water).
– During seasoning significant shrinkage in observed following the reduction of
the moisture content to levels below the fibre saturation point (35-25%
moisture reduction).
 Timber
Shrinkage and seasoning
• Tangential shrinkage Timber seasoning
– Is approximately double that of radial
shrinkage because the ray cells, which
run radially from the centre towards
the bark, have a restraining effect on
movement in their length.
• Radial shrinkage
– is shrinkage towards the centre.
• Longitudinal shrinkage
– is shrinkage along the length, and it is
minimal as it is along the grain. Timber shrinkage

• Average shrinkage/Transverse –
(tangential and radial
shrinkage)/2.
– It is taken into consideration during
structural design as most timber is saw
intermediate between tangential and
radial positions.
 Timber
Shrinkage and seasoning

Source:http://grandpacliff.com/Plants/Glossary-Plants.htm

Source:http://www.ggi-myanmar.com/wood/
 Timber
Shrinkage and seasoning

Felled logs Air drying of sawn timber

Source:http://waywardspark.com/homestead-logging-and-milling/
 Timber
Shrinkage and seasoning
• Artificial drying/Kiln drying – involves the use of heat to
season timber.
– Heat can either be direct using natural gas and/or electricity, or
indirectly through steam-heated heat exchangers or solar energy.
• temperature, humidity and air circulation are controlled to provide for conditions
that are suitable for effective drying
• kiln drying provides a means of overcoming the limitations of erratic weather
conditions and almost all commercial timbers of the world are dried in industrial
kilns.
• Benefits of Kiln drying include:
– dimensional stability and less risk of distortion
– fungi and moulds cannot survive on dried timber
– improved penetration of preservatives and a smoother finish after machining
– improved performance of finishes such as paints and stains
– improved insulation and strength
– drying times are considerably less in conventional kiln drying than in solar kiln
drying, followed by air-drying.
• Disadvantages
– Capital investment in setting –up and maintenance are significant .
 Timber
Shrinkage and seasoning
Conventional Kiln

Source:http://www.vortexeng.co.nz/components5.html Source: http://www.sites.mech.ubc.ca/~pougatch/wood.html

 Timber
Shrinkage and seasoning
Solar Kiln

Source: http://www.nzdl.org/gsdlmod?e=d-00000-00---off-0hdl--00-
0----0-10-0---0---0direct-10---4-------0-1l--11-en-50---20-about---00-0-
Source: http://www.jonathan-guest.co.uk/solar-kiln.htm
1-00-0-0-11-1-0utfZz-8-
10&a=d&cl=CL1.1&d=HASH70c81f6386a2600bdfdd3f.3.14
 Timber
Treatment and preservation
• When timber is exposed to moisture at levels above 20%
it is susceptible to attack by fungi and insects.
• Timber preservation - is the pressure or thermal
impregnation of chemicals into timber to provide
effective long-term resistance to attack by fungi, bacteria
or insects.
– This improves its service life to between 5 to 10 times longer than
untreated wood.

• There are two general classes of preservatives: oils (e.g.

creosote and petroleum solutions of pentachlorophenol)
and waterborne salts.
– The effectiveness of a preservative varies greatly and can depend
not only on its composition, but also on the quantity injected into
the timber/wood, the depth of penetration, and the conditions of
exposure during service.
 Timber
Defects
• Defects are distortions in timber and can be classified into 2
main types i.e. natural defects and man-made defects.

• Natural defects are a result of the biology/anatomy of a tree

and/or growth conditions. They include knots, splits, shakes,
cracks and upsets:
– Knots are stumps of branches with distorted grains and are generally
darker and harder pieces.
• If the knot is intact with the surrounding wood, it is called live knot. If it is not held
firmly it is called a dead knot.
• Knots are common in softwood as branches grow along the length.
– Splits and shakes/cracks are ruptures or separations along the grain which
reduce the quality as measured by appearance, strength and utility
• Splits - are fissures that extend through a member from one side to the other.
• Shakes/checks - are fissure which shows up on one face or at the end grain but
does not extend through a member
– They are a result of exposure to excessive heat, frost or twisting due to wind
during growth.
• Upsets/rupture - are fissures due to excessive compression of the tree during early
growth e.g. injury by crushing.
 Timber
Defects
Knots

Source:
http://homepage.eircom.net/~woodwork
website/matwood/defects.htm
Source:www.greenspec.co.uk-560
 Timber
Defects
Splits, checks/shakes

Source:www.woodmagazine.com-

Source:
http://homepage.eircom.net/~woodwork
website/matwood/defects.htm
 Timber
Defects
• Man-made defects in timber are a result of handling and
processing i.e.
– Seasoning defects - occur due to uneven drying resulting in warping,
twisting cupping, cracks/end splits, honey combing and cracks.
– Sawing defects such as chip marks, torn grain etc.

• Other defects in timber are due to fungi and insect attack:

– Fungi can grow in timber if the moisture content is more than 20% and
it results in rotting and stains.
– Insects such as beetles, marine borers and termites (white ants) eat
timber.

• Defects in timber reduces its strength and affects it suitability

for use as a structural material.
– In South Africa timber for structural use must meet set permissible
guidelines set out in SANS 1782-2: 2012.
 Timber
Defects
• Shrinkage in timber results in defects such as
– Warping/twisting: the variation in grain angle at the edges of
timber as a result of uneven drying.
• Uneven drying can also cause bowing, springing and cupping as a result
from differential shrinking during seasoning.
– Surface checks : are cracks that form as a result of tension stress on
the surface due to different rates in shrinkage during seasoning.
– Honeycombing – results from the splitting/cracking of timber during
seasoning as the inner core shrinks, pulling the outer case inwards due
to the internal tensional stress.
– Collapse occurs when there is a rapid change in volume as result of
rapid changes in pressure as free water evaporates resulting in
buckling.
– Simple air drying of lumber does not make it suitable for indoor use.
 Timber
Shrinkage and seasoning

source:http://homepage.eircom.net/~woodworkwebsite/matwood/defects2.html
 Timber
Movement
• Timber movement – timber expands and contracts in direct
proportion with increase or decrease in moisture content.
– Timber is hygroscopic and it releases or absorbs moisture to maintain
equilibrium between itself and the medium it is in contact with e.g.
air/water.

• The following factors influence movement:

– Tangential shrinkage rate of the tree species (rate of shrinkage across
the width of a back sawn board – dimension of greatest movement).
– Weather i.e. humidity, timber’s period of exposure to the elements of
weather i.e. the sun, rain etc.
Table 1. Equilibrium moisture content and seasonal variations in moisture
Locality Equilibrium moisture content-EMC (%) Seasonal variation of EMC(%)
Johannesburg 9 3-4.
Pretoria 8.5 3-4.
Kimberley 7 2-3.
Capetown 15 2 3.
Durban 14 3-4.
Port Elizabeth 15 2-3.
 Timber
• Summary of the benefits of using timber
– Environmental
• renewable, sustainable, recycled and biodegradable
– Design Advantages
• timber materials have aesthetic appeal
• cost effective alternative to other major building material choices
– Product Performance
• provides acoustic, thermal and strength performance
• in a fire situation, timber performs in a measurable, predictable manner
allowing designers the ability to create strong, durable, fire resistant
buildings
 Timber
• Summary of the benefits of using timber
– Environmental
• It is a natural material which is generally not toxic, does not leak chemical vapours
and it is safe to handle and touch.
• renewable, sustainable resource, can be recycled and it is biodegradable
• the manufacturing process of timber products requires lower energy in
comparison to other construction materials
– Design Advantages
• timber materials have aesthetic appeal
• it is a cost effective alternative to other construction materials
– Product Performance
• It is a natural insulator and can reduce energy needs especially when it is used in
windows, doors and floors.
• Easy to work
– Timber is versatile and can be used in a wide variety of ways, it is easy to
install and can be worked with simple equipment.
• In a fire situation, timber performs in a measurable, predictable manner allowing
designers the ability to create strong, durable, fire resistant buildings.
 Timber
• Summary of the limitations of using timber
– Limitations of using timber
• it is not a homogenous material as it is shaped by nature
• it requires preservation and treatment as it is prone to attack by fungi and
insects
• it is prone to catch fire
• timber is hygroscopic and its durability can be impacted by environmental
moisture levels.

Resources
• http://www.ibtimes.com/how-wood-high-rises-could-save-planet-
1575562
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4uHJ1Fu-jWk
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VvUPJPFg4wM
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sVBsA1KbfY8
 Bamboo

Source:www.bamboogarden.com-

Source:http://www.guaduabamboo.com/construction/bamboo-
parking-garage-the-hague
Source:civilengineerskatta.blogspot.com-550 × 325-Search by image
 Bamboo
• Bamboo is one of the oldest structural materials traditionally
used in Asia and South America.
– Bamboo grows in tropical and subtropical regions which include parts
of Asia, South America and Africa.
– Bamboo is a flowering perennial evergreen grass and it is considered a
forestry product in countries where it is utilised as a construction
material.
– There are over 1400 species of bamboo and some species are the
fastest-growing plants in the world.
• Some species grow at rates of 0.00003 km/h = 3cm/hr =0.5mm/min

• It is a natural composite material comparable to wood from

trees.
– It is renewable, recyclable and biodegradable.

• Bamboo is a potential alternative to conventional building

materials because:
– it has a high tensile strength and weight to strength ratio making it highly
resilient against forces created by high velocity winds and earthquakes.
– it can be easily worked upon by simple tools and machines.