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A human following portable robot is installed under the trolley to lead the
users to the items’ location that they plan to purchase in the supermarket. This paper
presents the hardware and software design of the portable robot. The result of the
testing on the used sensors like ultrasonic and line sensors are presented.
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Chapter – I
Introduction
In today’s era robots play a very important role. Robots are used to perform
various task which are dangerous for human beings in certain cases. Robot assistance
is proved to be always helpful for us. A robot that can carry our stuff and accompany
us in shopping malls, home, golf courses. There are many advantages of having such
kind of robots. It can also be used in civil and industrial applications. It is desired in
many applications that the robot be able to track and follow the person. The robot
should be able to track the movements of the person and follow him. This type of
robot is implemented using laser, R/F sensors, cameras. The methods of following
the target person involves constant analysis of distance between the target person
and the robot.
These systems have many drawbacks. The follower robot implemented using
cameras involves a problem in background/foreground separation. This results in
slow operation of the robot. These systems are slow in analyzing complex situations.
A simple line follower robot is interfaced using R/F sensors. These sensors detect
the path and follow it. Line follower robot requires a predefined path and thus it
cannot be used in day to day life. These systems are unable to avoid the obstacles.
To overcome this problem, we decided to implement the system using ultrasonic
sensor. Ultrasonic sensors are fast and are widely used for distance measurement
applications. Data received from ultrasonic sensor is processed by microcontroller
and thus the movement of the cart is decided.
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assembly factories . Meanwhile, intelligent robots have become popular in daily life
applications. Human-friendly robots are now used for taking care of the elderly . The
purpose of a human following robot is to improve the relationship between people
and the robot . For instance, the robot can carry heavy loads for people in hospitals,
airports and shopping centers.
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CHAPTER – II
PROPOSED SYSTEM
Block diagram
In the hardware design, Arduino Uno is used as the microcontroller for the
portable robot.
Ultrasonic sensors are used for following human while they are moving. The
IR sensor is used for the robot turn (right or left ) when the human turn around.
The motor driver is used to drive the electric motor. There is a robot based
mechanism installed under the shopping trolley. The microcontroller, IR sensor,
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motor driver and a 12V acid battery are put on the robot base in order to control the
shopping trolley. Figure 2.1 illustrates the robot mechanism with attached
hardware and components. Figure 2.2 depicts the robot mechanism that is attached
to the shopping trolley.
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CHAPTER - III
MODULE DESCRIPTION
3.1 ARDUINO
WHAT IS ARDUINO?
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In simple words,Arduino is a small microcontroller board with a USB plug to
connect to your computer and a number of connection sockets that can be wired up
to external electronics,such as motors,relays,light sensors,laser
diodes,loudspeakers,microphones,etc.,They can either be powered through the USB
connection from the computer or from a 9V battery.They can be controlled from the
computer or programmed by the computer and then disconnected and allowed to
work independently.
Anyone can buy this device through online auction site or search engine.Since
the Arduino is an open-source hardware designs and ccreate their own clones of the
Arduino and sell them,so the market for the boards is competitive.An official
Arduino costs about $30,and a clone often less than $20.
The name “Arduino” is reserved by the original makers. However, clone Arduino
designs often
have the letters “duino” on the end of their name, for example, Freeduino or
DFRduino. The software for programming your Arduino is easy to use and also
freely available for Windows, Mac, and LINUX computers at no cost.
Microcontroller
Microcontroller can be described as a computer embedded on a rather small
circuit board.To describe the function of a microcontroller more precisely,it is a
single chip that can perform various calculations and tasks,and send/receive signals
from other devices via the available pins. Precisely what tasks and
communication with the world it does, is what is governed by what instructions we
give to
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the Microcontroller. It is this job of telling the chip what to do, is what we refer to
as programming on it.
However, the uC by itself, cannot accomplish much; it needs several external
inputs: power, for one; a steady clock signal, for another. Also, the job of
programming it has to be accomplished by an external circuit. So typically, a uC is
used along with a circuit which provides these things to it; this combination is called
a microcontroller board. The Arduino Uno that you have recieved, is one such
microcontroller board. The actual microcontroller at its heart is the chip called
Atmega328. The advantages that Arduino offers over other microcontroller boards
are largely in terms of reliability of the circuit hardware as well as the ease of
programming and using it.
Open-source hardware
Open-source hardware shares much of the principles and approach of free and
open-source software.The founders of Arduino wanted people to study their
hardware,to understand how it works,make changes to it,and share those changes
with the world.To facilitate this,they release all of the original design files(Eagle
CAD)for the Arduino hardware.These files are licensed under a Creative Common
Attribution Share-Alike license,which allows for both personal and commercial
derivative works,as long as they(people) credit Arduino and release their designs
under the same license.
The Arduino software is also oen-source.The source code for the Java
environment is released under the GPL and the C/C++ microcontroller libraries are
under the LGPL
HISTORY OF ARDUINO
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While teaching a physical computing class at the Interaction Design Institute Ivrea
in 2005, Massimo Banzi’s students were unwilling to spend the 76 euros for the
BASIC Stamp microcontrollers commonly used in such applications. Banzi and his
collegues looked for alternatives, finally settling on the wiring platform developed
by one of Banzi’s students. In his own words:
“…we started to figure out how could we make the whole platform even simpler,
even cheaper, even easier to
use. And then we started to essentially reimplement the whole thing as an open
source project.”
Once they had a prototype, a student wrote the software that would allow wiring
programs to run on the new platform. Upon seeing the project, visiting professor
Casey Reas suggested that there might be wider applications than just design schools
for the new product. The prototype was redesigned for mass production and a test
run of 200 boards was made. Orders began coming in from other design schools and
the students looking for Arduinos, and the Arduino project was born and Massimo
Banzi and David Cuartielles became its founders.”ARDUINO” is an Italian
word,meaning “STRONG FRIEND”.The English version of the name is “Hardwin”.
As of May 2011,more than 300,000 Arduino units are “in the wild”.
Design Goals
Work with a Mac (as most design students use one)
USB connectivity (MacBooks don’t have serial ports
Look nice
Cheap (about 20 euros, the cost of going out for pizza in Europe)
More powerful than a BASIC stamp
Something you could build/fix yourself
Simple and easy to use by someone without formal electronics training
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Business Models
Since the entire project is open source, anyone can build and sell Arduino-
compatible devices. So in this sense, the Arduino project relies heavily on its
branding for it’s financial success . Other projects manufacture compatible and
cheaper boards, however people are loyal to the Arduino branded boards because
they associate quality and a certain image to the
final product .
By the Numbers
Year Units Sold
2005 200
2006 10 000
2010 120 000
2011 300 000
Competitors
Before Arduino, the largest players in the design/hobbyist market segment were
the PIC microcontroller family (made by Microchip) and the BASIC Stamp (made
by Parallax). Since the introduction of the Arduino, other large companies have tried
to enter the hobbyist market, including Texas Instruments , and even Microsoft .
However, the open-sourced tools
of the Arduino and the size of its community are large barriers for new platforms to
overcome.
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Community
As the project is aimed at students and hobbyists who may not have any formal
electronics background, there are many excellent guides online covering everything
from making a light blink to creating a laser harp. The official forum has almost 60
000 registered users, and along with helping users with their projects, is extremely
active in developing new libraries to extend the functionality of the Arduino . The
open-source share and share alike sentiment is very strong, and the vast majority of
users freely publish the code to their projects.
PHYSICAL COMPUTING
Physical Computing is an approach to learn how humans communicate through
computers that starts by considering how humans express themselves physically.
PLATFORM
HARDWARE
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Figure 3 ARDUINO board layout
ARDUINO pin diagram
16 MHz
8 Kbyte Flash RAM(1K taken by the boot loader)
1 Kbyte RAM(eg.for auto/local variables and stack)
14 digital Input/Output Ports
Figure 5 ATmega8
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Single chip USB to async. Serial data transfer interface
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(1 ampère). That way you can be sure you have enough juice to make each
component of the circuit function reliably.
The Arduino's on-board regulator can actually handle up to 20V or more, so you can
actually use an adapter that puts out 20V DC. The reasons you don't want to do that
are twofold: you'll lose most of that voltage in heat, which is terribly inefficient.
Secondly, the nice 9V pin on the Arduino board will actually be putting out 20V or
so, which could lead to potential disaster when you connect something expensive to
what you thought was the 9V pin. Our advice is to stick with the 9V or 12V DC
adapter.
ARDUINO flavors!!
There have been many revisions of the USB Arduino.some of them are
1. Arduino UNO:
This is the latest revision of the basic Arduino
USB board. It connects to the computer with a
standard USB cable and contains everything
else you need to program and use the board. It
can be extended with a variety of shields:
custom daughter-boards with specific features.
It is similar to the Duemilanove, but has a
different USB-to-serial chip the ATMega8U2,
and newly designed labeling to make
inputs and outputs easier to identify.
2. Arduino Mega 2560:
A larger, more powerful Arduino
board. Has extra digital pins, PWM
pins, analog inputs, serial ports, etc.
The version of the Mega released with
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the Uno, this version features the
Atmega2560, which has twice the memory,
and uses the ATMega 8U2 for USB-to-serial
communication.
3. Arduino Duemilanove:
The Duemilanove automatically
selects the appropriate power supply
(USB or external power), eliminating
the need for the power selection jumper found on previous boards. It also
adds an easiest to cut trace for disabling the auto-reset, along with a solder
jumper for re-enabling it.
Note: around March 1st, 2009, the
Duemilanove started to ship with
the ATmega328p instead of
theATmega168.
4. Arduino Fio:
An Arduino intended for use as a wireless node. Has a header for an XBee radio,
a connector for a LiPobattery, and a battery chargingcircuit.
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5. LilyPad Arduino:
6. Arduino Diecimila:
The main change in the Arduino Diecimila is that it can be reset from the
computer, without the need to physically press the reset button on the board. The
Diecimila uses a low dropout voltage
regulator which lowers the board's power
consumption when powered by an external
supply (AC/DC adapter or battery). A
resettable polyfuse protects your
computer's USB ports from shorts and
surges. It also provides pin headers for the
reset line and for 3.3V. There is a built-in
LED on pin 13. Some blue Diecimila
boards say "Prototype - Limited Edition"
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but are in fact fully-tested production boards
(the actual prototypes are red).
7. Lilypad Arduino 03
8. Arduino NG Rev.C
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9. Arduino Extreme
The Arduino Extreme uses many more surface mount components than previous
USB Arduino boards and comes with female pin headers. It also has RX and
TX LEDs that indicate when data is being sent to or from the board.
10.Arduino Mini 04
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Basic
Terminologies in ARDUINO:
1.Analog to digital converter(ADC)
The process of Analog to digital conversion is shown in figure.
The Arduino has 10 bits of Resolution when reading analog
signals.
2 power 10=1024 increments
Influence also by how fast you sample
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2power 8=255 Increments
Average of on/off(digital signals to make an average voltage),Duty cycle in 100%
of 5Volts.
LANGUAGE REFERENCES:
The Microcontroller on the board is programmed using the Arduino
programming language(based on wiring) and the arduino development
environment(based on processing).
Arduino Programming Language(APL)(based on wiring)
The Arduino programming language is an implementation of Wiring, a similar
physical computing platform, which is based on the Processing multimedia
programming environment.
Wiring
Wiring is an open-source programming framework for microcontrollers.
Wiring allows writing cross-platform software to control devices attached to a wide
range of microcontroller boards to create all kinds of creative coding, interactive
objects, spaces or physical experiences. The framework is thoughtfully created with
designers and artists in mind to encourage a community where beginners through
experts from around the world share ideas, knowledge and their collective
experience. There are thousands of students, artists, designers, researchers, and
hobbyists who use Wiring for learning, prototyping, and finished professional work
production.
Arduino development environment(based on processing)
Processing
Processing is an open source programming language and environment for
people who want to create images, animations, and interactions. Initially developed
to serve as a software sketchbook and to teach fundamentals of computer
programming within a visual context, Processing also has evolved into a tool for
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generating finished professional work. Today, there are tens of thousands of
students, artists, designers, researchers, and hobbyists who use Processing for
learning, prototyping, and production.
Software
The software used by the arduino is Arduino IDE.
The Arduino IDE comes with a C/C++ library called "Wiring" (from the project of
the same name), which makes many common input/output operations much easier.
Arduino programs are written in C/C++, although users only need define two
functions to make a runnable program:
setup() – a function run once at the start of a program that can initialize settings
loop() – a function called repeatedly until the board powers off
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3.2 LCD DISPLAY
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) screen is an electronic display module and find
a wide range of applications. A 16x2 LCD display is very basic module and is very
commonly used in various devices and circuits. These modules are preferred over
seven segments and other multi segment LEDs. The reasons being: LCDs are
economical; easily programmable; have no limitation of displaying special & even
custom characters (unlike in seven segments), animations and so on.A 16x2 LCD
means it can display 16 characters per line and there are 2 such lines. In this LCD
each character is displayed in 5x7 pixel matrix. This LCD has two registers, namely,
Command and Data.The command register stores the command instructions given
to the LCD. A command is an instruction given to LCD to do a predefined task like
initializing it, clearing its screen, setting the cursor position, controlling display etc.
The data register stores the data to be displayed on the LCD. The data is the ASCII
value of the character to be displayed on the LCD.
PIN DIAGRAM
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Pin Description:
Pin
Function Name
No
1 Ground (0V) Ground
2 Supply voltage; 5V (4.7V – 5.3V) Vcc
3 Contrast adjustment; through a variable resistor VEE
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16 Backlight Ground (0V) Led-
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Fig25 : Diode Bridge Rectifier
The essential feature of this arrangement is that for both polarities of the voltage at
the bridge input, the polarity of the output is constant.
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BASIC OPERATION OF DIODE BRIDGE RECTIFIER
When the input connected at the left corner of the diamond is positive with
respect to the one connected at the right hand corner, current flows to the right along
the upper colored path to the output, and returns to the input supply via the lower
one.
When the right hand corner is positive relative to the left hand corner, current flows
along the upper colored path and returns to the supply via the lower colored path.
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produces DC power when supplied with AC power: it also can provide what is
sometimes called "reverse polarity protection". That is, it permits normal functioning
when batteries are installed backwards or DC input-power supply wiring "has its
wires crossed" (and protects the circuitry it powers against damage that might occur
without this circuit in place).
RECTIFIER: A dc level obtained from a sinusoidal input can be improved 100% using
a process called full wave rectification. Here in our project for full wave rectification
we use bridge rectifier. From the basic bridge configuration we see that two diodes(say
D2 & D3) are conducting while the other two diodes (D1 & D4) are in off state during
the period t = 0 to T/2.Accordingly for the negative cycle of the input the conducting
diodes are D1 & D4 .Thus the polarity across the load is the same.
In the bridge rectifier the diodes may be of variable types like 1N4001, 1N4003,
1N4004, 1N4005, IN4007 etc… can be used . But here we use 1N4007, because it can
withstand up to 1000v.
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FILTERS: In order to obtain a dc voltage of 0 Hz, we have to use a low pass filter. so
that a capacitive filter circuit is used where a capacitor is connected at the rectifier
output& a dc is obtained across it. The filtered waveform is essentially a dc voltage
with negligible ripples & it is ultimately fed to the load.
REGULATORS: The output voltage from the capacitor is more filtered & finally
regulated. The voltage regulator is a device, which maintains the output voltage constant
irrespective of the change in supply variations, load variations & temperature changes.
Here we use fixed voltage regulator namely LM7805.The IC LM7805 is a +5v regulator
which is used for microcontroller.
Circuit Diagram:
• Output Current up to 1A
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• Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection
The KA78XX/KA78XXA series of three-terminal positive regulator are
available in the TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages,
making them useful in a wide range of applications. Each type employs internal
current limiting, thermal shut down and safe operating area protection, making it
essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver over
1A output current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these
devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and
currents.
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OPERATION
FEATURES
Introduction
The main purpose of this project is to measure the distance to
unreachable objects, obstacles or places using a portable device.
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Figure 2.1: The hand-held ultrasonic range meter device.
2.2 Motivation
The motivation of using this device is when construction engineers at any sites need
to measure distances to unreachable places in a quick and easy way using this device
with high efficiency and accuracy.
2.3 Characteristics
This device detects the distance to an object and shows the result in centimeters. This
device is activated by a trigger mechanism, pressing the trigger for one time will
give us the distance to an object if there was no error like poor aiming. The distance
to an object is displayed using a digital display with a high intensity in order to be
seen in any lighting conditions.
It is a simple and portable device similar to a gun as shown in Figure 2.2 that uses a
laser pointer to aim at a specific area to get the reflection at the receiver side.
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Figure 2.2: Description of each part of the device.
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Frequency, wavelength and attenuation:
λ = C/f (6.1)
Where λ is the wavelength, C is the velocity of sound equal to 340 m/s at 20º C
and f is the frequency equal to 40 KHz.
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C, velocity of sound varies with variation in temperature, pressure, medium type,
humidity, air turbulence, conventional currents. So before calculating the
wavelength, the speed of sound is required to be calculated.
3.6 IR SENSOR
IR detectors are little microchips with a photocell that are tuned to listen to
infrared light. They are almost always used for remote control detection - every TV
and DVD player has one of these in the front to listen for the IR signal from the
clicker. Inside the remote control is a matching IR LED, which emits IR pulses to
tell the TV to turn on, off or change channels. IR light is not visible to the human
eye, which means it takes a little more work to test a setup.There are a few difference
between these and say a CdS Photocells : IR detectors are specially filtered for
Infrared light, they are not good at detecting visible light. On the other hand,
photocells are good at detecting yellow/green visible light, not good at IR light
IR detectors have a demodulator inside that looks for modulated IR at 38 KHz. Just
shining an IR LED wont be detected, it has to be PWM blinking at 38KHz.
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Photocells do not have any sort of demodulator and can detect any frequency
(including DC) within the response speed of the photocell (which is about 1KHz)IR
detectors are digital out - either they detect 38KHz IR signal and output low (0V) or
they do not detect any and output high (5V). Photocells act like resistors, the
resistance changes depending on how much .
Arrival distance
o With our IR LED 520E940C (above):
direct view 35m, with inclination 45 deg 8m
Description
o A miniaturized receiver for infrared remote control and IR data transmission.
o PIN diode and preamplifier are assembled on lead frame.
o The epoxy package is designed as IR filter.
o The demodulated output signal can directly be decoded by a microprocessor.
o The main benefit is the operation with high data rates and long distances.
Features
o Photo detector and preamplifier in one package
o Internal band filter for PCM frequency
o Internal shielding against electrical field disturbance
o TTL and CMOS compatibility
o Output active low
o Small size package
Special Features
o Supply voltage 5.5 V
o Short settling time after power on
o High envelope duty cycle can be received
o Enhanced immunity against disturbance from energy saving lamps
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o B.P.F Center Frequency 38khz
o Peak Emission Wavelength 940nm
Application
o AV instruments such as Audio, TV, VCR, CD, DVD, MD etc.
o Home appliances such as Air conditioner, Fan etc.
o The other equipments with wireless remote control.
o CATV set top boxes.
o Multi-media Equipment.
o Sensors and light barrier systems for long distances
IR Receiver Codes
o Best works with: Rc6 Code, Rcmm Code, Sony 15bit Code
o Also suitable for: Grundig Code, Nec Code, Rc5 Code, R-2000 Code, Rca Code,
Sharp Code, Sony 12bit Code, Zenith Code
o Not recommended for: Rcs-80 Code, High Data Rate Code
L293D is a dual H-bridge motor driver integrated circuit (IC). Motor drivers
act as current amplifiers since they take a low-current control signal and provide a
higher-current signal. This higher current signal is used to drive the motors.
L293D contains two inbuilt H-bridge driver circuits. In its common mode of
operation, two DC motors can be driven simultaneously, both in forward and reverse
direction. The motor operations of two motors can be controlled by input logic at
pins 2 & 7 and 10 & 15. Input logic 00 or 11 will stop the corresponding motor.
Logic 01 and 10 will rotate it in clockwise and anticlockwise directions, respectively.
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Enable pins 1 and 9 (corresponding to the two motors) must be high for motors
to start operating. When an enable input is high, the associated driver gets enabled.
As a result, the outputs become active and work in phase with their inputs. Similarly,
when the enable input is low, that driver is disabled, and their outputs are off and in
the high-impedance state.
Working of L293D
There are 4 input pins for l293d, pin 2,7 on the left and pin 15 ,10 on the right
as shown on the pin diagram. Left input pins will regulate the rotation of motor
connected across left side and right input for motor on the right hand side. The
motors are rotated on the basis of the inputs provided across the input pins as LOGIC
0 or LOGIC 1.
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In simple you need to provide Logic 0 or 1 across the input pins for rotating the
motor.
Lets consider a Motor connected on left side output pins (pin 3,6). For rotating the
motor in clockwise direction the input pins has to be provided with Logic 1 and
Logic 0.
• Pin 2 = Logic 0 and Pin 7 = Logic 0 | Idle [No rotation] [Hi-Impedance state]
In a very similar way the motor can also operate across input pin 15,10 for motor on
the right hand side.
Voltage Specification
VCC is the voltage that it needs for its own internal operation 5v; L293D will not
use this voltage for driving the motor. For driving the motors it has a separate
provision to provide motor supply VSS (V supply). L293d will use this to drive the
motor. It means if you want to operate a motor at 9V then you need to provide a
Supply of 9V across VSS Motor supply.
The maximum voltage for VSS motor supply is 36V. It can supply a max current of
600mA per channel.Since it can drive motors Up to 36v hence you can drive pretty
big motors with this l293d.
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VCC pin 16 is the voltage for its own internal Operation. The maximum voltage
ranges from 5v and upto 36v.
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CHAPTER – IV
PREPARING OF LAYOUT
With the diagram and all the hand, draw a complete layout plan of the circuit
on a sheet of a tracing paper. As a model, for laying the circuit, a thermo cole base
may be used to hold components. Avoid over crowding of components while making
full space utilization. Keep the ground line on the side of the PCB and the supply
line on other side as far as possible. When all the components have been mounted
on the tracing paper sheet fixed on a piece of thermo cole base, take out a sketch pen
for making in such a way that all the connecting wires are equal in width, termination
rounded off. Re-draw draw it on a fresh paper if required.
PAINTING OF PCB
The tracing so prepared has to be imposed over the copper printed circuit
board keeping in view that the component would be mounted from the non-clad side
of the board. Take a PCB lamination sheet and cur a piece of required size of the
board by using hacksaw file edges, put the copper clad sheet on the table keeping
side on the runway the dirt grease and oxide with a sand paper with its marked side
tracing the carbon paper and at her side on top. Since the tracing paper is transformed
you can now reproduce a carbon point over a surface but using ball pen on a hard
pencil over the drawing on the transparent side. When the carbon print has been
obtained over the copper clad board drill ropes in the board using a hand drill. The
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holes may be draw with 1/32 bit for component lead sand the carbon should be raised
or wiped by mistake.
After painting the board, it will be made by the cool air for sometime. Now
take a plastic tray and get some Fe Cl3 chemical powder. The ferric chloride salt is
then added with 500ml of water. The color of the solution is pink. Color of the salt
is in yellow, now we add three to five drops of dilute HCL or H2SO4. This is
necessary to quicken the process.
ETCHING OF PCB
Now we take the painted copper clad board and dip it in the solution kept in
the tray. After 15 to 25 minutes we see the board, with only printed pattern portion
remaining in other place the copper coating is removed due to the chemical action.
Then the board is taken out and washes in water. After wash the board by using
thinner solution. Now a printed circuit has been formed on the board.
Take fresh water and mix a few teaspoons of FeCL3 add a few drops of dilute
HCL to it, as it speeds the etching process. Shake well immerse the PC Bin the
solution for about 20 minutes occasionally altering the solution by giving the seesaw
reaction to the disk storing reduces the etching time. Observe the changing color on
the copper surface. Take out the PCB only when the unpainted portion of the copper
surface is completely dissolved in the
3solution wash the PCB with the water. After the PCB is thoroughly washed remove
the paint by soft pieces of the cloth dipped in thinner or turpentine.
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DRILLING OF HOLES
Then take a drilling machine with 1/32 drill bit to make holes for the incretion
of the components use 1/18 drill bit for inset wires and other thick components.
ADVANTAGES
DIS ADVANTAGES
MATERIAL REQUIRED
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CONCLUSION
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