ABC Kinematic Axes

The direction of maximum flow or slip is termed 'an' axis, the plane ab is the slip plane and c are the slip plane normal. The terminology first
evolved at the time the concepts for Petro fabric analysis were being evolved by Bruno Sander. Later, the same became applicable to similar

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folds since these were the only folds in which the cleavage planes were not of maximum longitudinal strain but of maximum
displacement. Then the application came to the area of plate tectonics and movement of thrust sheets. Lastly, it became applicable to sheath
folds and with the impetus on research on shear zones, the terminology has now become applicable to sheared rocks. Though the concept has
become widely applicable, the usage of the very terms a, b and c appears to
have been done away with. In orogenic deformation, the movement direction
of thrust sheets is also 'a' or tectonic transport direction. Usually the thrust
sheets are emplaced and are accompanied by transpression, a term coined by
Harland in 1971.

Accretionary Wedges: Accretionary wedges are accumulations of sediment

scraped off from the down going (underthrust) slab during subduction. They
are landward of oceanic trenches formed by the subduction process.
Subduction may be of 'oceanic lithosphere' or beneath a continent (continental
arcs) or beneath other 'oceanic lithosphere' (island arcs). Critical Wedge Taper
in Accretionary Prisms (see this in this collection): The thickness of the wedge
depends on the amount of scraped sediment available. The critical taper of the
wedge is based on strength of the wedge material and on the basal shear
strength of the edge. Proper accommodation of the taper involves thrusting,
slumping, and normal faulting. Off scraping and underplating of the sediment
beneath the accretionary prism is accomplished by thrust faulting. The wedge
is underlain by a detachment fault on the top of the descending slab. This fault
ramps to progressively shallower levels toward the trench. See ramps and flats. Subduction produces asymmetric foreland fold & thrust belt and
an accretionary prism and progressive continental collision will produce symmetric foreland fold and thrust belts with opposite vergence. Volcanic
arc rocks formed by subduction are complexly deformed during the eventual collision.

Accelerating Creep

Time dependent deformation during which the strain rate usually drops. The slope of the time strain curve generally starts decreasing. This is
also known as primary creep. The time dependent deformation during which the rate of deformation is more or less constant. In other words,
the slope of the time strain curve would be
of the same degree. The most interesting
characteristic of constant stress tests is that
steady state creep is achieved. This is a
state where the rock exhibits no change of
strain with time. Steady state creep occurs
during the linear portion of the strain-time
curve.

In tertiary creep, the strain rate again begins

to fall. If the stress is tensile, the sample
fails by first necking and then followed by
rupture in tension.
Allochthonous Sheet: A sheet or pile of rocks that has moved considerable distance from
the place where it was formed; in an orogenic belt, where it lies over an autochthonous
block which has stayed in its own place. A surface of decollement separates the lower
autochthon and an upper allochthon. Many Alpine and Himalayan nappes have formed in
this manner by large scale mass transport. Sometimes, there is little deformation in the
allochthonous nappes despite the long distance over which they have moved. The
diagrams produced here are that of window and klippe, ramp and flat, and stretching
lineations and stylolites together with syntectonic crack seal antitaxial, syntaxial,
composite or stretched crystal veins. The features such as these together with imbricate
faults, listric faults and decollement are also described in detail elsewhere in this assembly.

Alpine Fault: This is an intracontinental transform fault cross-cutting the two islands of New
Zealand and continues as the Karmadoc subduction zone in Pacific Ocean. This photo taken
from a book shows recent activity (displacement of alluvial fan) along this fault. The
estimated total displacement along this fault since early Paleozoic is of the order of 450
km. The fault affects the Proterozoic granite greenstone association. Although not quite
strictly true, most of the granite bodies occur to the east of the fault. The fault is a
boundary between the Pacific and Indo Australian plates. Watch the BBC's online movie
on bbc.co.uk as part of the series titled Horizon by the BBC. This one is titled the man who
moved the mountains and also focuses on the movement of Indo-Australian plate with
experiment by Tapponier et al. As one encounters younger rocks along the fault, the
amount of displacement gradually diminishes. The earliest movements appear to have
begun during the mid-Paleozoic.

Amygdules: The vesicles in eruptive rocks are usually filled in by minerals such as calcite, quartz or zeolite. These initial spherical amygdales are
deformed to acquire ellipsoidal shapes after deformation with recrystallization or plastic deformation of the mineral species comprising the
amygdales. The amygdales afford a good material for use in determining the finite strain in rocks. The photograph is of deformed amygdales in
the Bhimtal area of Garhwal Himalaya (by Prof D K Shrivastava, IIT, Roorkee, India) at bottom while the one at top left is from the book by J G
Ramsay 1967. The one at right by author was taken in 1996 from the "Mehroni schist" supracrustal amphibolite in Central Indian Bundelkhand
batholith.

Andersonian Faults: E M Anderson (1951) divided all faults into three principal
types depending upon whether the maximum principal compressive stress, s 1
intermediate principal compressive stress s2 or least principal compressive
stress s3 was in the earth's gravitational field. If the maximum principal
compressive stress is vertical, grabens result, and the crust is extended. When
this is horizontal, but the least principal compressive stress is vertical, crustal
thickening and shortening occurs and thrust faults are generated as in most of
the orogenic belts. However, if both maximum and minimum principal stresses
are horizontal or tangential to the earth's surface and intermediate principal
stress

vertical, then there is no appreciable extension or shortening of the

earth's crust and transcurrent faults or strike slip faults are generated.
Angular Unconformity: An erosional surface underlain by rocks that show more complex structural style than in the younger rocks above. In
simple cases, the older strata are either folded or homoclinally inclined and the younger ones are only gently inclined or are sub horizontal. The
photograph shows this latter type in the northwest highlands of Scotland close to the Irish sea. In some cases, the younger strata just overlie the
igneous plutonic rocks, this being a nonconformity. In cases where the strata above and below have the same attitude, the term disconformity
is used. Obviously, in case of the last, there was no change in the attitude before the deposition of younger strata began, the only event being
the uplift and erosion. Hence, both the sets show the same attitude as they were subjected to the diastrophic movements or tectonic forces
together, after the formation of erosional surface.

Anisotropy: A rock usually deformed and metamorphosed with distinct planes, either discrete or nearly so. The response to applied stress on
such a rock is different in different directions and depends on the shear as well as compression modulus which itself depends on the angle
between applied stress and anisotropy planes and the degree of anisotropy. In contrast an isotropic material has the same moduli of shear and
compression in all directions. The figure that accompanies this text is after Cobbold et al. 1971 who investigated experimentally Biot's theory of
folding in laminated media. The interlayer slip and anisotropy are maximum to a layer parallel and layer normal shortening, but progressively
decrease on applied stress changing its orientation from these two extreme situations. If the compression is layer parallel and interlayer slip not
hampered, ideal conjugate kink bands are formed. If the
interlayer slip gets hampered on account of lack of layer
continuity or bounding material does not allow slip, the
anisotropy is reduced, and sinusoidal folds are formed in
preference. If the compression applied is at angle to the
layering, the anisotropy decreases (i.e. N and Q are not at
variance but come pretty close to each other so that their ratio
is not too great), then single kink-bands are formed in
preference to conjugate, other conditions having been met
with. Under layer normal conditions, again the anisotropy is high
and extensional kink-bands (normal) result as also other
structures under low slip such as internal boudinage. The four
sets of figures show how the anisotropy is under four idealized
conditions chose by Cobbold, Cosgrove and Summers. Just as
the anomalous thick competent layer affects the chevron fold model stability, so does that of the development of conjugate kink-bands if the
anisotropy becomes lower because of the presence of an anomalous thick layer. At this place is shown four experiments carried out by Summers.
In the first stage, the anomalous layer is too thick, and the structures produced are sinusoidal folds of type 1 instability when the interlayer slip
is hampered. But as the thickness of the central layer is reduced, we start getting first the type 3 structures of intermediate anisotropy until
finally high anisotropy conjugate kink-bands are produced when the layer thickness is same as that of the other layers in the same complex.
These last depict high anisotropy and easy interlayer slip on account of compressive and shear moduli being at great variance.

Anticline and Syncline: An upward or downward closing fold in the

core of which the Stata found are the oldest in the entire sequence
is called an anticline. In case of sideways closing fold, it may have to
be ascertained if the fold acquired this style during its evolution
and if it has originally been an anticline or a syncline. A syncline is
an upward or downward closing fold in the core of which the strata
found or rocks found are relatively younger. Again, in case of
neutral or sideways closing fold, similar facts as enumerated may
have to be ascertained. Anticlinorium and Synclinorium is a large or
major anticline or a syncline on whose limbs are fund minor folds,
both anti and synclines, generally asymmetrical and on opposite
senses of the two limbs.

Antiform and Synform

An upward closing fold. Not related to the stratigraphy. It could be an anticline or a syncline, depending on whether the core contains relatively
older or younger rocks of the sequence. A downward closing fold is called a Synform. Not related to the stratigraphy. It could be an anticline or
a syncline, depending on whether the core contains relatively older or younger rocks of the sequence. A sideways closing fold is a neutral fold,
it could be recumbent if its axial plane is horizontal or reclined if its
axial plane is inclined and the plunge of the fold hinge and axial
plane dip are equal, and the azimuth of plunge and azimuth of axial
plane are the same.