1987
2013
• Ishino
et al.
 
rst describe a paern of short, palindromic repeats of DNA interspersed with short, non-repeve “spacers” of DNA in
E. coli
bacteria.
2002200720102012
•
Jansen
et al.
 
name the paern CRISPR, short for “clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats.”
•
Barrangou
et al.
 show
 that CRISPR, mediated by Cas proteins, provides bacterial immunity against viruses by matching DNA in spacer sequences with DNA from viruses.
•
Garneau
et al.
show
 that the CRISPR/Cas system can acquire new spacers from foreign DNA.
•
Jinek, Doudna, Charpener
et al.
 
develop CRISPR/Cas9, which can be programmed to recognize and target any DNA sequence.
20142015
•
Cong, Zhang
et al.
 show
 that CRISPR/Cas9 can precisely edit DNA in human & mouse cells, and that a single CRISPR/Cas9 array can be programmed to edit several sites at once.
• Tan
et al.
 
use CRISPR/Cas9 in pig, goat, and cale cells.
•
Ran, Zhang
et al.
 
report that a technique called “double nicking,” which breaks both strands of ........... DNA, can reduce CRISPR/Cas9 o-targeng by 50- to 1,500-fold.
•
Sciensts use CRISPR/Cas9 to modify the genome of silkworm and frog
 
embryos.
•
Fu, Sander
et al 
. report that using truncated guide RNAS can reduce CRISPR/Cas9 o-targeng by 5,000-fold or more.
•
Shalem, Zhang
et al.
 
use CRISPR/Cas9 for genome-scale screening of cancer-related genes in human cells.
•
Niu
et al.
 report the birth of twin monkeys that have been genecally engineered with CRISPR/Cas9.
•
Hu, Khalili
et al.
 
use CRISPR/Cas9 to eradicate HIV from human immune cell lines.
•
Wu
et al 
. use CRISPR/Cas9 to correct genec disease in mice germ cells.
•
Sciensts publish editorials in
 
Nature
 and
Science
 
calling for a pause on researching clinical applicaons of CRISPR/Cas9 in human reproducve cells.
•
Hilton
et al.
 
create a CRISPR/Cas9-based system that can edit the epigenome, a set of chemical “switches” that can turn genes on and o.
•
Liang
et al.
 
report that they have used CRISPR/Cas9 to gene-edit non-viable human embryos with limited success.
Images by Maurizio Fausillo, Mister Pixel, Olivier Guin, Stewart Lamb Cromar, b mijnlie, and Mike Ashley for the Noun Project 
.
 
A HISTORY OF CRISPR
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