JctlfeOustlgb ]^JKBD << Auksef Wtrbbt, 3;ta djeer Fbw \erh, F\ 3==37->132 [bj? >3>.>3<.774= Dcx? >3>.;73.;>94 1==.7>1.>7>> Weutabcst ^bilefcj Eddlgb 2>7 Ybst Gejeflcj Krlvb | Erjcfke, DJ 7>1=; [bj? 7>3.;31.472;
JctlfeOustlgb ]^JKBD Wtctb`bft ef Kbgejeflzctlef ed ]ubrte ^lge 31 Oufb >=31
Derty-slx ybcrs cie, tab ]ubrte ^lgcf Jbicj Kbdbfsb cfk Bkugctlef Dufk, hfewf few cs JctlfeOustlgb ]^JKBD, wcs nerf te ckkrbss systb`lg klsgrl`lfctlef, fbijbgt cfk cnusb ed ]ubrte ^lgcfs ny ievbrf`bft cfk prlvctb sbgter cgters
. [ab ericflzctlef“s glvlj rliats jbicgy wcs nuljt
upef tab gejjbgtlvb eutrcib tact eur ge``uflty bxpbrlbfgbk cs lt wcs rennbk ed lts pejltlgcj velgb cfk seglcj cfk bgefe`lg gcpltcj. [ekcy tact eutrcib ls `cfldbstbk cfbw lf rbspefsb te tab ef-ielfi bgefe`lg grlsls tact ]ubrte ^lge acs nbbf bxpbrlbfglfi der tab pcst sbvbrcj ybcrs cfk lf tab pejltlgcj grlsls tact lt acs dcgbk der 3>= ybcrs cs c tbrrlterlcj pessbsslef ed tab Rfltbk Wtctbs. Cs c au`cf cfk glvlj rliats ericflzctlef kbklgctbk te kbdbfklfi tab rliats ed cjj Jctlfes, lfgjuklfi ]ubrte ^lgcfs, te jbck c jldb ed kliflty, rbspbgt cfk `bcflfi, JctlfeOustlgb ]^JKBD nbjlbvbs tact ]ubrte ^lge `ust nb cnjb te bfoey sbjd-kbtbr`lfctlef cfk pcrtlglpctb lf c trub kbgejeflzctlef pregbss l``bklctbjy. Eurs ls cf ericflzctlef tact kbpbfks upef, cfk jbvbrcibs, tab pre`lsb ed tab jcw bvbry kcy. Nut lf tab gcsb ed ]ubrte ^lge, tyrcfflgcj ke`bstlg jcws acvb grbctbk cfk pbrpbtuctbk c gejefy ed tab Rfltbk Wtctbs. [ab R.W.
Gefstltutlef“s [brrlterlcj Gjcusb
, tab Wuprb`b Geurt
“s sbjbgtlvb cppjlgctlef ed gefstltutlefcj pretbgtlefs te R.W.
tbrrlterlbs, cfk tab ufbfklfi klsgrl`lfctlef prcgtlgbk rbpbctbkjy ny Gefirbss
cjj acrhbf te Wt. Drcfgls“ ck`efltlef tact cf ufoust
jcw ls fe jcw ct cjj. [ab jbicj pcta tewcrks kbgejeflzctlef ls sbjd-kbtbr`lfctlef. [act prlfglpjb ls kbbpjy ireufkbk lf lftbrfctlefcj au`cf rliats jcw cfk ls uflvbrscjjy cggbptbk cs c rliat nbjefilfi te pbepjbs cfk fctlefs. [ab rliat ed c pbepjb te sbjd-kbtbr`lfctlef ls c gcrklfcj prlfglpjb lf `ekbrf lftbrfctlefcj jcw, ge``efjy rbicrkbk cs c
ous geibfs
rujb, `bcflfi tact lt ls nlfklfi ef cjj fctlefs cfk `b`nbrs ed tab Rfltbk Fctlefs, lfgjuklfi tab Rfltbk Wtctbs. [ab fer` ed sbjd-kbtbr`lfctlef stctbs tact c pbepjb, ncsbk ef rbspbgt der tab prlfglpjb ed bqucj rliats cfk dclr bqucjlty ed eppertuflty, acvb tab rliat te drbbjy gaeesb tablr sevbrblifty cfk lftbrfctlefcj pejltlgcj stctus wlta fe lftbrdbrbfgb. [als prlfglpjb wcs gekldlbk lf tab Kbgjcrctlef ef tab Ircftlfi ed Lfkbpbfkbfgb te Gejeflcj Geuftrlbs cfk ]bepjbs,
3
walga stctbs, c`efi etabr talfis, tac
t ‚
cf bfk `ust nb put te gejeflcjls` cfk cjj prcgtlgbs ed sbirbictlef cfk klsgrl`lfctlef csseglctbk tabrbwlta
.‐
[ab gurrbft bgefe`lg grlsls lf ]ubrte ^lge, geupjbk wlta tab au`cfltcrlcf grlsls gcusbk ny Aurrlgcfbs Lr`c cfk @cr
à
c lf >=39, acvb jclk ncrb tab l
sjcfk“s gejeflcj gefkltlef
, lfgjuklfi bxpeslfi predeufk strugturcj lfbqucjltlbs tact geftlfub te kbbpbf wlta ievbrf`bft rbprbsslef cfk vlejctlefs ed dufkc`bftcj au`cf rliats. [ab kbglslef ny tab R.W. Wuprb`b Geurt lf
]ubrte ^lge v.
3
RF Ibfbrcj Cssb`njy, Kbgjcrctlef ef tab Ircftlfi ed Lfkbpbfkbfgb te Gejeflcj Geuftrlbs cfk ]bepjbs, 3; Kbgb`nbr 3<4=, C/^BW/323;(QT).
Wcfgabz Tcjjb
>
`ckb gjbcr tact ]ubrte ^lge cs c tbrrlterlcj pessbsslef ed tab Rfltbk Wtctbs acs fe sbpcrctb seurgb ed sevbrblifty, cfk tact
tab ‚“
ujtl`ctb
“
seurgb ed XP pewbr rb`clfs tab R.W. Gefirbss
.‐
C dbw wbbhs jctbr Gefirbss pre`ujictbk tab dbkbrcj stctutb hfewf cs ]^E@BWC,
7
walga, c`efi etabr rliats gurtcljbk, l`pesbk c dbkbrcj dlsgcj geftrej necrk, vlejctlfi tab glvlj cfk pejltlgcj rliats ed `ljjlefs ed ]ubrte ^lgcfs, lf ckkltlef te bxcgbrnctlfi sbrleus bgefe`lg cfk seglcj rliats vlejctlefs lf c grubj custbrlty rbil`b. C rbgbft rbpert ny tab R.F. Wpbglcj ^cppertbur ef bxtrb`b pevbrty cfk au`cf rliats, ]aljlp Cjstef, fetbk dre` als eddlglcj geuftry vlslt te tab Rfltbk Wtctbs, walga lfgjukbk ]ubrte ^lge, tact
‚XlP
f tab jliat ed rbgbft Wuprb`b Geurt ourlsprukbfgb cfk
Gefirbss“s ckeptlef ed tab ]ubrte ^lge Evbrsliat, @cfcib`bft, cfk Bgefe`lg Wtcnljlty Cgt tabrb
sbb`s te nb ieek rbcsef der tab Wpbglcj ]ejltlgcj cfk Kbgejeflzctlef Ge``lttbb ed tab Rfltbk Fctlefs te gefgjukb tact tab lsjcfk ls fe jefibr c sbjd-ievbrflfi tbrrltery.
‐
;
[ab Wpbglcj Ge``lttbb ltsbjd acs lssubk talrty-slx rbsejutlefs slfgb 3<9> gcjjlfi der tab kbgejeflzctlef ed ]ubrte ^lge, walga tab Rfltbk Wtctbs acs liferbk. Lf >=39, tab Ge``lttbb spbgldlgcjjy gcjjbk ciclf upef tab
Rfltbk Wtctbs te ‚
cssu`b lts rbspefslnljlty te bxpbkltb c pregbss tact wljj cjjew tab ]ubrte ^lgcf pbepjb dujjy te bxbrglsb tablr lfcjlbfcnjb rliat te sbjd-kbtbr`lfctlef cfk lfkbpbfkbfgb . . . cfk te tchb kbglslefs, lf c sevbrblif `cffbr, te ckkrbss tablr uribft bgefe`lg cfk seglcj fbbks, lfgjuklfi ufb`pjey`bft, `crilfcjlzctlef, lfsejvbfgy cfk pevbrty, cfk lssubs rbjctbk te bkugctlef cfk
abcjta.‐
2
Cs cf lfstltutlef ncsbk ef tab prlfglpjbs ed jcw cfk bqucjlty, JctlfeOustlgb ]^JKBD supperts tab drbb cfk lfkbpbfkbft bxbrglsb ed dufkc`bftcj au`cf rliats ny cjj ]ubrte ^lgcfs, cfk gcjjs der c trub kbgejeflzctlef ed ]ubrte ^lge. Wevbrblifty `ust nb c prb-gefkltlef ed cfy duturb kbglslef jbk ny tab ]ubrte ^lgcf pbepjb tact wljj lfder` tab rbjctlefsalp taby wljj gaeesb te acvb wlta tab Rfltbk Wtctbs lf cggerkcfgb wlta R.F. ^bs. 32;3,
4
lfgjuklfi b`bribfgb cs cf lfkbpbfkbft stctb er cs c drbb csseglctlef nbtwbbf sevbrblif stctbs.
>
]ubrte ^lge v. Wcfgabz Tcjjb
, 374 W. Gt. 3147 (>=34).
7
]ubrte ^lge Evbrsliat, @cfcib`bft, cfk Bgefe`lg Wtcnljlty Cgt, ].J. 33;-319 (>=34).
;
^bpert ed tab Wpbglcj ^cppertbur ef bxtrb`b pevbrty cfk au`cf rliats ef als `lsslef te tab Rfltbk Wtctbs ed C`brlgc, C/A^G/71/77/Ckk.3, pcrc. >; (@cy ;, >=31).
2
Wpbglcj Ge``lttbb ef tab Wltuctlef wlta rbicrk te tab L`pjb`bftctlef ed tab Kbgjcrctlef ef tab Ircftlfi ed Lfkbpbfkbfgb te Gejeflcj Geuftrlbs cfk ]bepjbs, Kbglslef ed tab Wpbglcj Ge``lttbb gefgbrflfi ]ubrte ^lge, C/CG.3=</>=39/J.3>, pcrc. 7 (Oufb 34, >=39).
4
RF Ibfbrcj Cssb`njy, ]rlfglpjbs walga saeujk iulkb `b`nbrs lf kbtbr`lflfi wabtabr er fet cf enjlictlef bxlsts te trcfs`lt tab lfder`ctlef gcjjbk der ufkbr Crtlgjb 97b ed tab Gacrtbr, C/^BW/32;3(QT) (32 kbg 3<4=).