THEORY OF METAL MACHINING

1. Overview of Machining Technology

2. Theory of Chip Formation in Metal Machining
3. Force Relationships and the Merchant
Equation
4. Power and Energy Relationships in Machining
5. Cutting Temperature
Material Removal Processes
A family of shaping operations, the common feature
of which is removal of material from a starting
workpart so the remaining part has the desired
geometry
Machining material removal by a sharp cutting
tool, e.g., turning, milling, drilling
Abrasive processes material removal by hard,
abrasive particles, e.g., grinding
Nontraditional processes - various energy forms
other than sharp cutting tool to remove material
Cutting action involves shear deformation of
work material to form a chip
As chip is removed, new surface is exposed
Figure 21.2 (a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process, (b)
tool with negative rake angle; compare with positive rake angle in (a).
Machining
Basic Mechanics of Metal Cutting
Special aspects of Metal cutting
Thickness of chip is greater than actual depth
of cut??? Chip is shortened
No Flow of metal at right angles to the
direction chip flow
Flow lines are evident on the side and back of
chip shearing mechanism
Considerable thermal energy is associated
with the cutting process


Role of friction in cutting
Friction can be reduced by
Improved tool finish and sharpness of the
cutting edge
Use of low friction work or tool material
Increased sliding speed
Improved tool geometry
Use of cutting fluids
Metal Cutting thermal effects
Engineering Mechanics
Material Testing
Engineering Plasticity
Fundamentals of lubrication, friction and wear
Basic concepts of chemistry and physics
Principles of metallurgy
Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
Fundamentals of cutting
Fig 20.3 Schematic illustration of a two-
dimensional cutting process,also called
orthogonal cutting.Note that the tool shape
and its angles,depth of cut,to,and the cutting
speed are all independent variables.
Fig 20.1 Examples of cutting process
Fig 20.2 Basic principle of turning operation
Why Machining is Important
Variety of work materials can be machined
Most frequently used to cut metals
Variety of part shapes and special geometric
features possible, such as:
Screw threads
Accurate round holes
Very straight edges and surfaces
Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
Disadvantages with Machining
Wasteful of material
Chips generated in machining are wasted material, at least
in the unit operation
Time consuming
A machining operation generally takes more time to shape
a given part than alternative shaping processes, such as
casting, powder metallurgy, or forming

Machining in Manufacturing
Sequence
Generally performed after other
manufacturing processes, such as
casting, forging, and bar drawing
Other processes create the general shape of the
starting work part
Machining provides the final shape, dimensions,
finish, and special geometric details that other
processes cannot create
Objectives During Machining
High Material Removal Rate
(MRR)
Good accuracy and Surface
finish
Long tool life

Cost

Cutter Related
Material
Geometry
Mounting
Workpiece Related
Material (composition, homogeneity)
Geometry (bar, block, casting etc.)
Depth of cut
Spindle speed
Feed rate
Machine Related
Cutting fluid type and
application method
Depth and Width of cut
Spindle speed
Feed rate
Others
Cutting fluid type and application
method
Depth and Width of cut
Spindle speed
Feed rate
Processing Parameters in Machining
Cutting forces and
Torques and power
Tool temperature
Frictional effects
on tool face
Built up edge
Formation
Chatter, noise and
Vibrations
Effects of Processing Parameters
Work hardening
Thermal softening
Hot spots on the
machined surface
Deflection and
diameter variations
Tool life
Surface finish
Theories of Chip Formation

Chip formation studies helps in understanding mechanics of metal
cutting or physics of machining
They lead to equations that describe the interdependence of the
process parameters such as depth of cut, relative velocity, tool
geometry etc. These relations help us in selecting optimal process
parameters.
Theories of Chip Formation Theory of Tear

A crack propagates ahead of the tool tip causing tearing similar
to splitting wood [Reuleaux in 1900]
Theories of Chip Formation Theory of Tear
Against the traditional wisdom, the tool was observed to wear, not at the
tip, but a little distance away from it. Therefore, this theory was
subscribed by many researchers for a long time.
Theories of Chip Formation Theory of Tear
Further studies attributed the wear away from the tip to the
following:
Chip velocity w.r.t. the tool is zero at the tip.
The tip is protected by BUE.
Temp is also high a little away from the tip due to the
frictional heat.
Subsequent studies proved the chip formation as shear and
not tear. Thus the theory of tear was rejected.
Theories of Chip Formation Theory of Compression
The tool compresses the material during machining.
This was based on the observation that the chip length was shorter
than the uncut chip length.
Later it was established that this shortage in length corresponds to the
increase chip thickness.
Thus this theory too was wrong
Theories of Chip Formation Theory of Shear
The excessive compressive stress causes shear of the chip at an angle to
the cutting direction [Mallock in 1881].
Theories of Chip Formation Theory of Shear
Emphasis on the influence of friction at chip-tool interface
Studied the effect of cutting fluids
Studied the influence of tool sharpness
Studied chatter
His observations on the above studies still hold good
although he could not explain all of them at that time.
Mallocks other contributions
Difficulties in Machining Mechanics studies
Several physical phenomenon such as plastic flow, fracture, friction,
heat, molecular diffusion and chatter are involved. Some of them
occur in extrme conditions
Friction sticking; deformation high strain and strain rate; nascent
surface exposed after deformation is very active causing diffusion
The cutting zone is covered by chips and coolant.
Typical machining is oblique, i.e., forces, torques and deflections exist
in all 3 directions.
Simplified 2-D model of machining that describes
the mechanics of machining fairly accurately
Figure 21.6 Orthogonal cutting: (a) as a three-dimensional process.
Orthogonal Cutting Model
Facing of thin pipe on a lathe with the cutting edge radial to the pipe.
Orthogonal Cutting
Mechanism of Oblique Cutting
The cutting edge is at an angle i, called inclination angle.
The chip movement is in lateral direction

Fig: a)right hand cutting tool.Although these tools have traditionally been produced
from solids tool-steel bars,they have been largely replaced by carbide or other
inserts of various shapes and sizes,as shownin b).The vcarious angles on these tools
and their effects on machining are described
Difficulties in Machining Mechanics studies
The typical machining operations are too short and the stock (depth
and width of cut) keeps changing.
Furthermore, velocity also may change along the cutting edge as well
as over time. These changes further compound the difficulties to
observe the process carefully.
Orthogonal cutting experiments were developed to overcome
these difficulties.
A wedge shaped tool is used
Cutting edge is perpendicular to the direction of cut. In other words,
cutting edge angle and cutting edge inclination angle
Uncut chip thickness is constant along the cutting edge and w.r.t.
time.
Cutting edge is longer than the width of the blank and it extends on its
both sides.
Cutting velocity v is constant along the cutting edge and w.r.t. time
Characteristics of Orthogonal Cutting
Quick stopping devices to freeze the chip formation
Cutting wax manually slowly so as to observe it
Marking grids on the side of the work piece and study their deformation.
Microscopic studies
Photoelastic studies (tools made of transparent material such as persbex or
resin (araldite); work piece is wax. Resulting fringe patterns are observed
under polarized glasses.
Observation using high speed cameras
Force, torque and power measurements using dynamometers.
Temp measurements
Orthogonal Cutting - Experiments
Machining Operations
Most important machining operations:
Turning
Drilling
Milling
Other machining operations:
Shaping and planing
Broaching
Sawing
Single point cutting tool removes material from a
rotating workpiece to form a cylindrical shape
Figure 21.3 Three most common machining processes: turning,
Turning
Used to create a round hole, usually by means of a
rotating tool (drill bit) with two cutting edges
Drilling
Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved across
work to cut a plane or straight surface
Two forms: peripheral milling and face milling
peripheral milling, face milling.
Milling
Cutting Tool Classification
1. Single-Point Tools
One dominant cutting edge
Point is usually rounded to form a nose radius
Turning uses single point tools
2. Multiple Cutting Edge Tools
More than one cutting edge
Motion relative to work achieved by rotating
Drilling and milling use rotating multiple cutting edge
tools
Figure 21.4 (a) A single-point tool showing rake face, flank, and tool
point; and (b) a helical milling cutter, representative of tools with
multiple cutting edges.
Cutting Tools
Cutting Conditions in Machining
Three dimensions of a machining
process:
Cutting speed v primary motion
Feed f secondary motion
Depth of cut d penetration of tool below
original work surface
For certain operations, material
removal rate can be computed as
R
MR
= v f d
where v = cutting speed; f = feed; d = depth of
cut
Figure 21.7 Shear strain during chip formation: (a) chip formation depicted
as a series of parallel plates sliding relative to each other, (b) one of the
plates isolated to show shear strain, and (c) shear strain triangle used to
derive strain equation.
Shear Strain in Chip Formation
Shear Strain
Shear strain in machining can be
computed from the following equation,
based on the preceding parallel plate
model:

= tan(| - o) + cot |

where = shear strain, | = shear plane
angle, and o = rake angle of cutting tool
Figure 21.8 More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear
zone rather than shear plane. Also shown is the secondary shear
zone resulting from tool-chip friction.
Chip Formation
Four Basic Types of Chip in Machining
1. Discontinuous chip
2. Continuous chip
3. Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
4. Serrated chip
Factors influencing cutting process
Parameter Influence and interrelationship
Cutting speed depth of
cut,feed,cutting fluids.
Tool angles

Continuous chip

Built-up-edge chip
Discontinuous chip

Temperature rise.

Tool wear

Machinability
Forces power,temperature rise,tool life,type of chips,surface
finish.
As above;influence on chip flow direction;resistance to tool
chipping.
Good surface finish;steady cutting forces;undesirable in
automated machinery.
Poor surface finish,thin stable edge can product tool surface.
Desirable for ease of chip disposal;fluctuating cutting
forces;can affect surface finish and cause vibration and
chatters.
Influences surface finish,dimensional accuracy,temperature
rise,forces and power.
Influences surface finish,dimensional accuracy,temperature
rise,forces and power.
Related to tool life,surface finish,forces and power
Types of chips
Continuous
Built up edge
Serrated or segmented
Discontinuous







Fig20.5 Basic types of chips and their photomicrographs produced in metal cutting (a) continuous ship
with a narrow,straight primary shear zone; (b) secondary shear zone at the chip tool interface;(c)
continuous chip with large primary shear zone; (d) continuous chip with built-up-edge;(e)
segmented or nonhomogeneous chip and (f) discontinuous chips
Brittle work
materials
Low cutting speeds
Large feed and
depth of cut
High tool-chip
friction


Figure 21.9 Four types of chip
formation in metal cutting: (a)
discontinuous
Discontinuous Chip
Discontinuous
Typically associated with brittle metals like
Cast Iron
As tool contacts work, some compression
takes place
As the chip starts up the chip-tool interference
zone, increased stress occurs until the metal
reaches a saturation point and fractures off
the workpiece.
Discontinuous
Conditions which favor
this type of chip
Brittle work material
Small rake angles on
cutting tools
Coarse machining feeds
Low cutting speeds
Major disadvantage
could result in poor
surface finish
Continuous
Continuous ribbon of metal that flows up
the chip/tool zone.
Usually considered the ideal condition for
efficient cutting action.
Continuous
Conditions which favor this type of chip:
Ductile work
Fine feeds
Sharp cutting tools
Larger rake angles
High cutting speeds
Proper coolants
Surface finish on 1018 steel in face milling
Surface finish in turning 5130 steel with a built-up edge
Ductile work
materials
High cutting speeds
Small feeds and
depths
Sharp cutting edge
Low tool-chip
friction

Figure 21.9 (b) continuous
Continuous Chip
Ductile materials
Low-to-medium
cutting speeds
Tool-chip friction
causes portions of chip
to adhere to rake face
BUE forms, then
breaks off, cyclically
Figure 21.9 (c) continuous
with built-up edge
Continuous with BUE
Continuous with a built-up edge(BUE)
Same process as continuous, but as the
metal begins to flow up the chip-tool zone,
small particles of the metal begin to adhere
or weld themselves to the edge of the
cutting tool. As the particles continue to
weld to the tool it effects the cutting action
of the tool.
Continuous with a built-up edge(BUE)
This type of chip is common
in softer non-ferrous metals
and low carbon steels.
Problems
Welded edges break off and
can become embedded in
workpiece
Decreases tool life
Can result in poor surface
finishes


Semicontinuous -
saw-tooth
appearance
Cyclical chip forms
with alternating high
shear strain then
low shear strain
Associated with
difficult-to-machine
metals at high
cutting speeds
Serrated Chip
Figure 21.9 (d) serrated.
Chip Breakers
Long continuous chip
are undesirable
Chip breaker is a piece
of metal clamped to the
rake surface of the tool
which bends the chip
and breaks it
Chips can also be broken
by changing the tool
geometry,thereby
controlling the chip flow

Fig 20.7 (a) Schematic illustration of the action of
a chip breaker .(b) Chip breaker clamped on
the rake of a cutting tool. (c) Grooves in
cutting tools acting as chip breakers
Chip Breakers
Fig:Various chips produced in turning: a)tightly curled chip b)chip hits workpiece and
breaks c)continuous chip moving away from workpiece;and d)chip hits tool shank and
breaks off
Cutting Conditions for Turning
Figure 21.5 Speed, feed, and depth of cut in turning.
Roughing vs. Finishing
In production, several roughing cuts are usually
taken on the part, followed by one or two
finishing cuts
Roughing - removes large amounts of material
from starting workpart
Creates shape close to desired geometry, but leaves some
material for finish cutting
High feeds and depths, low speeds
Finishing - completes part geometry
Final dimensions, tolerances, and finish
Low feeds and depths, high cutting speeds
Machine Tools
A power-driven machine that performs a
machining operation, including grinding
Functions in machining:
Holds workpart
Positions tool relative to work
Provides power at speed, feed, and depth that have been
set
The term is also applied to machines that
perform metal forming operations
Forces in Metal Cutting
Equations can be derived to relate the forces
that cannot be measured to the forces that
can be measured:
F = F
c
sino + F
t
coso
N = F
c
coso - F
t
sino
F
s
= F
c
cos| - F
t
sin|
F
n
= F
c
sin| + F
t
cos|
Based on these calculated force, shear stress
and coefficient of friction can be determined
Friction force F and Normal force to friction N
Shear force F
s
and Normal force to shear F
n

Figure 21.10 Forces in
metal cutting: (a) forces
acting on the chip in
orthogonal cutting
Forces Acting on Chip
Resultant Forces
Vector addition of F and N = resultant R
Vector addition of F
s
and F
n
= resultant R'
Forces acting on the chip must be in balance:
R' must be equal in magnitude to R
R must be opposite in direction to R
R must be collinear with R
Coefficient of Friction
Coefficient of friction between tool and chip:
Friction angle related to coefficient of friction
as follows:
N
F
=
| tan =
Shear Stress
Shear stress acting along the shear plane:
| sin
w t
A
o
s
=
where A
s
= area of the shear plane
Shear stress = shear strength of work material
during cutting
s
s
A
F
S =
Chip Thickness Ratio
where r = chip thickness ratio; t
o
= thickness of
the chip prior to chip formation; and t
c
= chip
thickness after separation
Chip thickness after cut always
greater than before, so chip ratio
always less than 1.0
c
o
t
t
r =
Determining Shear Plane Angle
Based on the geometric parameters of
the orthogonal model, the shear plane
angle | can be determined as:
where r = chip ratio, and o = rake angle
o
o
|
sin
cos
tan
r
r

=
1
F, N, F
s
, and F
n
cannot be directly measured
Forces acting on the tool that can be measured:
Cutting force F
c
and Thrust force F
t

Figure 21.10 Forces
in metal cutting: (b)
forces acting on the
tool that can be
measured
Cutting Force and Thrust Force
The Merchant Equation
Of all the possible angles at which shear
deformation can occur, the work material
will select a shear plane angle | that
minimizes energy, given by


Derived by Eugene Merchant
Based on orthogonal cutting, but validity
extends to 3-D machining
2 2
45
| o
| + =
What the Merchant Equation Tells Us
To increase shear plane angle
Increase the rake angle
Reduce the friction angle (or coefficient of
friction)
2 2
45
| o
| + =
Higher shear plane angle means smaller shear
plane which means lower shear force, cutting
forces, power, and temperature
Figure 21.12 Effect of shear plane angle | : (a) higher | with a
resulting lower shear plane area; (b) smaller | with a corresponding
larger shear plane area. Note that the rake angle is larger in (a), which
tends to increase shear angle according to the Merchant equation
Effect of Higher Shear Plane Angle
Power and Energy Relationships
A machining operation requires power
The power to perform machining can be
computed from:
P
c
= F
c
v
where P
c
= cutting power; F
c
= cutting force;
and v = cutting speed
Power and Energy Relationships
In U.S. customary units, power is
traditional expressed as horsepower
(dividing ft-lb/min by 33,000)
where HP
c
= cutting horsepower, hp
000 33,
v F
HP
c
c
=
Power and Energy Relationships
Gross power to operate the machine
tool P
g
or HP
g
is given by

or
where E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool
Typical E for machine tools ~ 90%
E
P
P
c
g
=
E
HP
HP
c
g
=
Unit Power in Machining
Useful to convert power into power per
unit volume rate of metal cut
Called unit power, P
u
or unit horsepower,
HP
u


or
where R
MR
= material removal rate
MR
c
U
R
P
P =
MR
c
u
R
HP
HP =
Specific Energy in Machining
Unit power is also known as the specific
energy U
Units for specific energy are typically
N-m/mm
3
or J/mm
3
(in-lb/in
3
)
w vt
v F
R
P
P U
o
c
MR
c
u
= = =
Cutting Temperature
Approximately 98% of the energy in machining
is converted into heat
This can cause temperatures to be very high at
the tool-chip
The remaining energy (about 2%) is retained
as elastic energy in the chip
Cutting Temperatures are Important
High cutting temperatures
1. Reduce tool life
2. Produce hot chips that pose safety hazards to
the machine operator
3. Can cause inaccuracies in part dimensions
due to thermal expansion of work material

Cutting Temperature
Analytical method derived by Nathan Cook
from dimensional analysis using experimental
data for various work materials
where T = temperature rise at tool-chip
interface; U = specific energy; v = cutting
speed; t
o
= chip thickness before cut; C =
volumetric specific heat of work material; K =
thermal diffusivity of work material
333 0
4 0
.
.
|
.
|

\
|
=
K
vt
C
U
T
o

Cutting Temperature
Experimental methods can be used to measure
temperatures in machining
Most frequently used technique is the tool-chip thermocouple
Using this method, Ken Trigger determined the
speed-temperature relationship to be of the
form:
T = K v
m

where T = measured tool-chip interface
temperature, and v = cutting speed
Tool Selection Factors
Inputs
Work material
Type of cut
Part geometry and size
lot size
Machinability data
Quality needed
Past experience of the decision maker
Constraints
Manufacturing practice
Machine condition
Finish part requirements
Workholding devices
Required process time
Tool Selection Process
Elements of an Effective Tool
High hardness
Resistance to abrasion and wear
Strength to resist bulk deformation
Adequate thermal properties
Consistent tool life
Correct geometry
Tool Materials
Wide variety of materials and compositions
are available to choose from when selecting a
cutting tool
Tool Materials
They include:
Tool steels - low end of scale. Used to make some
drills, taps, reamers, etc. Low cost equals low tool life.
High speed steel(HSS) - can withstand cutting
temperatures up to 1100F. Have improved hardness
and wear resistance, used to manufacture drills,
reamers, single point tool bits, milling cutters, etc.
HSS cutting tools can be purchased with additional
coatings such as TiN which add additional protection
against wear.
Tool Materials
Cobalt - one step above HSS, cutting speeds are
generally 25% higher.
Carbides - Most widely used cutting tool today.
Cutting speeds are three to five times faster than
HSS. Basic composition is tungsten carbide with a
cobalt binder. Today a wide variety of chemical
compositions are available to meet different
applications. In addition to tool composition,
coatings are added to tool materials to incerase
resistance to wear.
Tool Materials
Ceramics - Contain pure aluminum oxide and can
cut at two to three times faster than carbides.
Ceramic tools have poor thermal and shock
resistance and are not recommended for
interrupted cuts. Caution should be taken when
selecting these tools for cutting aluminum,
titanium, or other materials that may react with
aluminum oxide.
Tool Materials
Cubic Boron Nitride(CBN) - This tool material maintains
its hardness and resistance to wear at elevated
temperatures and has a low chemical reactivity to the
chip/tool interface. Typically used to machine hard
aerospace materials. Cutting speeds and metal
removal rates are up to five times faster than carbide.
Industrial Diamonds - diamonds are used to produce
smooth surface finishes such as mirrored surfaces. Can
also be used in hard turning operations to eliminate
finish grinding processes. Diamond machining is
performed at high speeds and generally fine feeds. Is
used to machine a variety of metals.

Tool Geometry
The geometry of a cutting tool is determined
by (3) factors:
Properties of the tool material
Properties of the workpiece
Type of cut
Tool Geometry
The most important geometrys to consider on
a cutting tool are
Back Rake Angles
End Relief Angles
Side Relief Angles
Tool Geometry
Rake Angles
Back-Allows the tool to shear the work and
form the chip. It can be positive or negative
Positive = reduced cutting forces, limited
deflection of work, tool holder, and machine
Negative = typically used to machine harder
metals-heavy cuts
The side and back rake angle combine to from
the true rake angle
Rake Angles
Small to medium rake angles cause:
high compression
high tool forces
high friction
result = Thickhighly deformedhot chips
Rake Angles
Larger positive rake
angles
Reduce compression
and less chance of a
discontinuous chip
Reduce forces
Reduce friction
Result = A thinner, less
deformed, and cooler
chip.
Rake Angles
Problems.as we increase the angle:
Reduce strength of tool
Reduce the capacity of the tool to conduct heat
away from the cutting edge.
To increase the strength of the tool and allow it to
conduct heat better, in some tools, zero to
negative rake angles are used.

Negative Rake Tools
Typical tool materials which utilize negative
rakes are:
Carbide
Diamonds
Ceramics
These materials tend to be much more brittle
than HSS but they hold superior hardness at
high temperatures. The negative rake angles
transfer the cutting forces to the tool which
help to provide added support to the cutting
edge.
Negative Rake Tools
Summary Positive vs. Negative Rake
Angles
Positive rake angles
Reduced cutting forces
Smaller deflection of work, tool holder, and machine
Considered by some to be the most efficient way to
cut metal
Creates large shear angle, reduced friction and heat
Allows chip to move freely up the chip-tool zone
Generally used for continuous cuts on ductile
materials which are not to hard or brittle
Summary Positive vs. Negative Rake
Angles
Negative rake angles
Initial shock of work to tool is on the face of the
tool and not on the point or edge. This prolongs
the life of the tool.
Higher cutting speeds/feeds can be employed


Tool Angle Application
Factors to consider for tool angles
The hardness of the metal
Type of cutting operation
Material and shape of the cutting tool
The strength of the cutting edge








Carbide Inset Selection
Carbide Inset Selection
A.N.S.I. Insert Identification System ANSI - B212.4-1986
M1-Fine
M2-Medium
M3-S.S
M4-Cast iron
M5-General
Purpose
Carbide Inset Selection
Tool Life: Wear and Failure
1. Flank wear :It occurs
on the relief face of
the tool and the side
relief angle.

2. Crater wear:It occurs
on the rake face of
the tool.

3. Chipping :Breaking
away of a small piece
from the cutting edge
of the tool .
Fig (a) Flank and crater wear in a cutting tool.tool
moves to the left. (b) View of the rake of a
turning tool,showing nose radius R and crater
wear pattern on the rake face of the tool
c)View of the flank face of a turning
tool,sowing the average flank wear land VB
and the depth-of-cut line (wear notch)

Wear and Tool Failures: Crater wear
Fig (a) Schematic illustrations of types of wear observed on various types of cutting tools .(b)
Schematic illustrations of catastrophic tool failures.A study of the types and mechanism of
tool wear and failure is essential to the development of better tool materials
22/118
Tool Wear
Productivity and economy of manufacturing by machining are significantly affected by life of
the cutting tools. Cutting tools may fail by brittle fracture, plastic deformation or gradual
wear. Turning carbide inserts having enough strength, toughness and hot hardness generally
fail by gradual wears. With the progress of machining the tools attain crater wear at the rake
surface and flank wear at the clearance surfaces, as schematically shown in following Figure
(next slide) due to continuous interaction and rubbing with the chips and the work surfaces
respectively. Among the aforesaid wears, the principal flank wear is the most important
because it raises the cutting forces and the related problems.
Flank Wear
Crater
Wear
Principal Cutting
Edge
Shank
Rake or Face
Flank
Auxiliary
Cutting
Edge
22/119
K
B

K
M

A A
V
N

V
B

V
M

V
S

V
S
M

K
T

Notch
Grooving
wear
Section
A-A
Auxiliary
Flank
Principal
Flank
Rake
Surface
Crater
wear
Major Features of Wear of Turning Tool
V
B
= Average flank wear
V
N
= Flank notch wear
V
M
= Maximum flank wear
V
S
= Average auxiliary flank
wear
V
S
M

= Maximum auxiliary flank
wear
K
T
= Crater depth
K
M
= Distance from center of
crater
K
B
= Crater width
22/120
The life of the tools, which ultimately fail by systematic gradual wear, is generally assessed at
least for R&D work, by the average value of the principal flank wear (V
B
), which aggravates
cutting forces and temperature and may induce vibration with progress of machining. The
pattern and extent of wear of the auxiliary flank (V
S
) affects surface finish and dimensional
accuracy of the machined parts.
However, tool rejection criteria for finishing operation were employed in this investigation.
The values established in accordance with ISO Standard 3685 for tool life testing. A cutting
tool was rejected and further machining stopped based on one or a combination of rejection
criteria:
i. Average Flank Wear 0.3 mm
ii. Maximum Flank Wear 0.4 mm
iii. Nose Wear 0.3 mm
iv. Notching at the depth of cut line 0.6 mm
v. Average surface roughness value 1.6 m
vi. Excessive chipping (flanking) or catastrophic fracture of cutting edge.
22/121
Effects of Tool Wear
The wear on a tool causes the following effects.
The cutting force increases
The dimensional accuracy of the work decreases
The surface roughness of the work increases
The tool-work system may start vibrating
The work piece may get damaged or tool may break ultimately.
22/122
Mechanism of Tool Wear
To know the right mechanism of tool wear and its reasons, the researchers all over the
world conducted lots of experiments. Due to the inabilities of the researchers to
observe the wear actually taking place on different places of a tool, the bulk of the
knowledge is based primarily on theory supported by limited investigations. In general
there are seven basic types of wear that affect a cutting tool:
Abrasion: Mechanical wearing, hard particles in workpiece removes small portions of the
tool, that cause flank and crater wear. This is the dominant cause of flank wear.
Adhesion:Two metals contact under high pressure and temperature that cause welding
between the materials.
Diffusion:Atoms on the boundry of workpiece and tool changes place. This is the principle
cause for crater wear.
Chemical Reactions: The high temperatures and clean surfaces at the chip-tool interface in
machining at high speeds can result in chemical reactions, in particular, oxidation, on the
rake surface of the tool. The oxidized layer, being softer than the parent tool material, is
sheared away, exposing new material to sustain the reaction process.
Plastic Deformation: Cutting forces acting on the cutting edge at high temperature cause
the edge to deform plastically. This cause flank wear.
22/123
Tool Life
Defined as the cutting time required for complete failure of the tool,
The time necessary to produce a given amount of flank wear on the
tool.
Tool life is a measure of the length of time a tool will cut satisfactorily
Tool life is an important factor in production work since considerable
time is lost wherever a tool is ground and reset.
The tool life is affected by several variables, the important ones being:

Cutting speed (V
c
)
Feed rate (S
o
)
Depth of cut (t)
Work material hardness
Tool material
Shape and angles of cutting tool
Types of cutting fluid and its method of application
22/124
Tailor Tool Life Equation
As cutting proceeds, various wear mechanisms result in increasing levels of wear
on the cutting tool. The general relationship of tool wear versus cutting time is
shown in following Figure. Although the relationship shown is for flank wear, a
similar relationship occurs for crater wear. Three regions can usually be identified
in the typical wear growth curve.
Break-in period
Machining Time (min)
T
o
o
l

F
l
a
n
k

W
e
a
r

(
V
B
)

Steady-state wear region
Failure
region
Rapid initial wear
Uniform
wear rate
Accelerating
wear rate
Final
failure
22/125
The first is the break-in Period, in which the sharp cutting edge wears
rapidly at the beginning of its use. This first region occurs within the first
few minutes of cutting.
The break-in period is followed by wear that occurs at a fairly uniform rate.
This is called the steady state wear region.
In this figure, this region is pictured as a linear function of time, although
there are deviations from the straight line in actual machining. Finally, wear
reaches a level at which the wear rate begins to accelerate.
This marks the beginning of the failure region, in which cutting
temperatures are higher and the general efficiency of the machining
process is reduced. If allowed to continue, the tool finally fails by
temperature failure.
Frederick W. Taylor did pioneering work in the field of metal cutting. He
conducted numerous experiments and in 1907 gave the following
relationship between tool life and cutting speed.
C T V
n
c
=
Constant C
t. environmen and n combinatio work and on tool depends It index. life Tool n
life Tool T , velocity Cutting
c
V
Where,
=
=
= =
22/126
Tool-life curves for a variety of cutting-tool materials as shown in the following Figure. The negative inverse of
the slope of these curves is the exponent n in the Taylor tool-life equations and C is the cutting speed at T = 1
min.
C T V
n
c
=
The following values may be taken for n
n = 0.10 to 0.15 for HSS tools
n = 0.20 to 0.40 for carbide tools
n = 0.40 to 0.60 for ceramic tools
22/127
Cutting Tool Materials for Machining
A wide variety of tool materials have been developed to fulfill the severe
demand of present-day production. No one of' these materials is superior
in all respects, but rather each has certain characteristics which limits its
field of application. Depending upon the type of service, the proper tool
material should, therefore, be selected. The best material to use for a
certain job is the one that will produce the machined part at the lowest
cost. A good type of tool material should possess certain desired
properties such as
The material must remain harder than the work material at
elevated operating temperature.
The material must withstand excessive wear even though the
relative hardness of the tool-work materials changes.
The frictional coefficient at the chip-tool interface must remain
low for minimum wear and reasonable surface finish.
The material must be sufficiently tough to withstand the shocks
of intermittent cutting; if not reinforcement must be provided.
The tool material should also possess high thermal conductivity
for quickly removing heat from the chip-tool interface, have a
low coefficient of thermal expansion, not be distorted after
heat treatment, be easy to regrind and also easy to weld to the
tool holder
22/128
Types of Cutting Tool Materials
Carbon Tool Steels
medium alloy steels
poor properties above 200
O
C
Inexpensive
Uses: Taps and core drills for machining soft materials and wood working tools
High Speed Steels (HSS)
Hot hardness is quite high, so the HSS cutting tools retain the cutting ability upto 600
O
C
Wear resistance is high
The hardenability is good
Uses: Drills, reamers, broaches, milling cutters, taps, lathe cutting tool, gear hobs etc. are made of
HSS.
Carbides
A hard material made of compacted binary compounds of carbon and heavy metals, used to make
tools that cut metal.
made using powder metallurgy
usually as an insert
Ceramics
high abrasion and high hot hardness
not good for interrupted cutting
requires dry, or constant profuse cutting fluids
22/129
All carbides, when finished, are extremely brittle and weak in their resistance to it impact
and shock loading. Due to this, vibrations are very harmful for carbide tools. The machine
tools should be rigid, faster and more powerful. Light feeds, low speeds and chatter are
harmful. Due to the high cost of carbide tool materials and other factors, cemented carbides
are used in the form of inserts or tips which are brazed or clamped to a steel shank as shown
in the following Figure.

Methods of attaching inserts to tool shanks
22/130
Cutting Fluid
Machining is inherently characterized by generation of heat and high
cutting temperature. At such elevated temperature the cutting tool if not
enough hot hard may lose their form stability quickly or wear out rapidly
resulting in increased cutting forces, dimensional inaccuracy of the
product and shorter tool life. The magnitude of this cutting temperature
increases, though in different degree, with the increase of cutting velocity,
feed and depth of cut, as a result, high production machining is
constrained by rise in temperature. This problem increases further with
the increase in strength and hardness of the work material. So, the use of
a cutting fluid during a machining operation is very essential. Its
application at the workpiece-tool interface produces the following effects:
22/131
Properties of Good Cutting Fluid
Good cooling capacity and lubricating qualities
Rust resistance and stability- for long life
Resistance to rancidity and foaming
Non-toxic
Transparent-to allow the operator to see the work clearly during
machining
Relatively low viscosity-to permit the chips and dirt to settle quickly
Nonflammable-to avoid burning easily and should be non-combustible
Ability to disposed of in an environmentally responsible way.
In addition, it should not smoke excessively, form gummy deposit which
may cause machine slide to become sticky, or clog the circulating system.
22/132
Types of Cutting Fluids
Cutting fluids are used in metal machining for a variety of reasons such as improving
tool life, reducing workpiece thermal deformation, improving surface finish and flushing
away chips from the cutting zone. Practically all cutting fluids presently in use fall into
one of four categories:
Straight oils
Soluble oils
Semi-synthetic fluids
Synthetic fluids

Straight oils are non-emulsifiable and are used in machining operations in an undiluted
form. They are composed of a base mineral or petroleum oil and often contain polar
lubricants such as fats, vegetable oils and esters as well as extreme pressure additives
such as Chlorine, Sulphur and Phosphorus. Straight oils provide the best lubrication and
the poorest cooling characteristics among cutting fluids.
22/133
Soluble oil fluids form an emulsion when mixed with water. The concentrate
consists of a base mineral oil and emulsifiers to help produce a stable emulsion.
They are used in a diluted form (usual concentration = 3 to 10%) and provide good
lubrication and heat transfer performance. They are widely used in industry and
are the least expensive among all cutting fluids.

Semi-synthetic fluids are essentially combination of synthetic and soluble oil fluids
and have characteristics common to both types. The cost and heat transfer
performance of semi-synthetic fluids lie between those of soluble oil fluids and
synthetic fluid.

Synthetic fluids contain no petroleum or mineral oil base and instead are
formulated from alkaline inorganic and organic compounds along with additives
for corrosion inhibition. They are generally used in a diluted form (usual
concentration = 3 to 10%). Synthetic fluids often provide the best cooling
performance among all cutting fluids.
22/134
Machining Economics
Optimizing cutting speed is formulated by W. Gilbert with respect to Taylors tool
life formula. There are two objectives in this optimization
Maximizing production rate
Minimizing unit cost

Both objectives seek a balanced MRR and tool life.
Maximizing Production Rate
Choose cutting speed to minimize machining time per production
unit.
In turning 3 elements contribute to the total production cycle time for
one part

Part handling time (loading+ unloading+ starting the machining)=T
h

Machining time (actual machining)=T
m
Tool change time (at the end of tool life, the tool must be changed)=T
t
.
22/135
Therefore total time per unit product for the operation cycle
T
c
= T
h
+T
m
+T
t
/n
p
Where n
p
=integer number of parts we can produce within the tool life.

Our objective is to minimize T
c
, which is the function of the cutting speed.
Remember in Turning operation, T
m
= .D.

L/ V .S
o
Taylors tool life formula, V.T
n
=C T=(C/ V)
1/n

n
p
=T/ T
m
n
p
=(C/ V)
1/n
.

V .S
o

/ .D.

L

=

C
1/n
.

S
o

/ .D.

L

.

V
(1/n) -1


So, T
c
becomes, T
c
= T
h
+ .D.

L/ V .S
o
+(T
t
. .D.

L

.

V
(1/n) -1
)/ C
1/n
.

S
o

To minimize we need to take derivative of T
c

w.r.t V, and equate it to 0.
Therefore the maximum V= V
max
=C/[{(1/n)-1}T
t
]
n
22/136
We have maximum production for this value of V. The corresponding tool life is
T
max
=[(1/n ) 1]. T
t
Minimizing Cost per Unit
Choose cutting speed to minimize production cost per unit product.In
turning 4 elements contribute to the total production cost for one part
(cost rate is $/min)
Cost of part handling time(cost of the time that operator spends loading and unloading the part)=C
o

.T
h
Cost of machining time= C
o

. T
m
Cost of tool change time= C
o

. T
t

/n
p
Tooling cost= C
t

/n
p
,
where, C
t

=Cost for cutting edge=P
t
/n
e
P
t
=Price of the tool
n
e

=Number of cutting edges
C
o
=Cost rate ($/min) for the operator and machine
22/137
If the tool is regrindable, C
t
=P
t
/n
g
+T
g
. C
g
Where,
n
g
=number of tool lifes
T
g
=time to grind
C
g
=grinding labor cost
Therefore total cost per unit product for the operation cycle,
( )
n
1
C
o
S
1
n
1
DLV
t
C
t
T
o
C
o
S V
DL
o
C
h
T
o
C
c
C
p
n
t
C
p
n
t
T
o
C
m
T
o
C
h
T
o
C
c
C
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
+ + = = + + + =
To minimize the cost we need to take derivative of C
c
w.r.t , and equate it to 0.
Therefore the minimum V,
V
min
=C.[{n/ (1-n)}.(C
o
/ (C
o
. T
t
+C
t
)]
n
Means that it is the cost minimizing speed, and the corresponding tool life is
T
min
=[(1/n)-1].(C
o
. T
t
+C
t
)/ C
o