The age of Earth is approximately one-third of the age of the universe.

An immense amount of biological and geological change has occurred in that time span.

Origin Of Earth

Earth formed around 4.54 billion years ago by accretion from the solar nebula. Volcanic outgassing likely created the primordial atmosphere, but it contained almost no oxygen and would have been toxic to humans and most modern life. Much of the Earth was molten because of extreme volcanism and frequent collisions with other bodies.

Very large collision is thought to have been responsible for tilting the Earth at an angle and forming the Moon

Over time, such cosmic bombardments ceased, allowing the planet to cool and form a solid crust. Water that was brought here by comets and asteroids condensed into clouds and the oceans took shape. Earth was finally hospitable to life, and the earliest forms that arose enriched the atmosphere with oxygen. Life on Earth remained small and microscopic for at least one billion years

Biological and geological change has been constantly occurring on our planet since the time of its formation. Organisms continuously evolve, taking on new forms or going extinct in response to an ever-changing planet.

planet, such as the formation of the ozone layer, the proliferation of oxygen, and the creation of soil. This change is ongoing and will continue for the next few billion years.

Solar System Formation Solar Nebula Hypothesis In this model, the Solar system formed from a large, rotating cloud of interstellar dust and gas called the solar nebula. It was composed of Hydrogen and Helium and heavier elements ejected by supernova . The nebula began a contraction that may have been triggered by the shock wave of a nearby supernova . A shock wave would have also made the nebula rotate. As the cloud began to accelerate, and slowly formed a Solar System.

Atmosphere
First atmosphere - Earth is often described as having had three atmospheres. The first atmosphere, captured from the solar nebula, was composed of light elements from the solar nebula, mostly hydrogen and helium. A combination of the solar wind and Earth's heat would have driven off this atmosphere, as a result of which the atmosphere is now depleted in these elements compared to cosmic abundances. After the impact, the molten Earth released volatile gases; and later more gases were released by volcanoes ,. Second atmosphere- rich in green house gases but poor in oxygen.

Third atmosphere- rich in oxygen, emerged when bacteria began to produce oxygen

Oceans
As the planet cooled, clouds formed. Rain created the oceans. Stars are known to get brighter as they age, and at the time of its formation the Sun would have been emitting only 70% of its current power. Many models predict that the Earth would have been covered in ice, A likely solution is that there was enough carbon dioxide and methane to produce a greenhouse effect. The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes.

Origin of Earth
To understand the origin of Earth, we must focus on how Earth formed billions of years ago. Earth formed as a direct result of the Solar Nebula Hypothesis, which states, that a great cloud of gas and dust shrank under its own gravitation and transformed into the planets and natural satellites that make up the present solar system.

Early Earth

It is thought that Earth was not always layered as it is today. Some scientist suggest that Earth was a lot like the moon in appearance billions of years ago. The composition of the ancient Earth was thought to be the same throughout. It separated later in Earths history.

Segregation of Earth

Shortly after Earth formed, the interior of Earth segregated and took on a layered structure. Heat generated from the collision of particles and the decay of radioactive isotopes produced heat in Earths interior which was responsible for melting the heavier elements (Ni and Fe) within Earth.

Segregation of Earth

Gravitation caused great streams of hot heavy liquids moved toward Earths center and melted the lighter rock material and forced it to the surface.
This sorting of material by density, early in Earths history, is still occurring today, but on a smaller scale. Gases are released from Earths interior through volcanoes .

Segregation of Earth
Inner Core Outer Core Mantle

Crust

The heavier material (nickel and iron) which concentrated close to Earths center formed the inner and outer core. The lighter and less dense material which moved upwards closer to the surface formed Earths crust.
The material in between formed earths mantle.

Segregation of Earth
Atmosphere Hydrosphere Geosphere

Atmosphere and oceans formed as a result of the gases given off by volcanic out gassing throughout Earths history.

Structure of the Earth

The Earth is made up of 3 main layers:
Core Mantle Crust
Crust Mantle

Outer core Inner core

The Crust
This is where we live!
The Earths crust is made of:

Continental Crust - thick (10-70km) - buoyant (less dense than oceanic crust) - mostly old

Oceanic Crust - thin (~7 km) - dense (sinks under continental crust) - young

How do we know what the Earth is made of?

Geophysical surveys: seismic, gravity, magnetics, electrical, geodesy
Acquisition: land, air, sea and satellite Geological surveys: fieldwork, boreholes, mines

What is Plate Tectonics?

 If you look at a map of the world, you may notice that some of the continents could fit together like pieces of a puzzle.

Plate Tectonics
The Earths crust is divided into 12 major plates which are moved in various directions. This plate motion causes them to collide, pull apart, or scrape against each other. Each type of interaction causes a characteristic set of Earth structures or tectonic features. The word, tectonic, refers to the deformation of the crust as a consequence of plate interaction.

World Plates

What are tectonic plates made of?

Plates are made of rigid lithosphere.
The lithosphere is made up of the crust and the upper part of the mantle.

What lies beneath the tectonic plates?

Below the lithosphere (which makes up the tectonic plates) is the asthenosphere.

Plate Movement
Plates of lithosphere are moved around by the underlying hot mantle convection cells

What happens at tectonic plate boundaries?

Three types of plate boundries

Divergent Boundaries Convergent Boundries Transform fault Boundries

Three types of plate boundary

Divergent

Divergent Boundaries

Divergent Boundaries

Spreading ridges
As plates move apart new material is erupted to fill the gap

Age of Oceanic Crust

Courtesy of www.ngdc.noaa.gov

Convergent

Convergent Boundaries
Oceanic Continental Convergence Oceanic- oceanic convergence Continental continental convergence

Oceanic Continental Convergence

Oceanic- oceanic convergence

Continental-continental convergence

Transform

Convergent Boundaries
There are three styles of convergent plate boundaries
Continent-continent collision Continent-oceanic crust collision Ocean-ocean collision

Continent-Continent Collision
Forms mountains, e.g. European Alps, Himalayas

Himalayas

Continent-Oceanic Crust Collision

Called SUBDUCTION

Subduction

Oceanic lithosphere subducts underneath the continental lithosphere Oceanic lithosphere heats and dehydrates as it subsides The melt rises forming volcanism E.g. The Andes

Ocean-Ocean Plate Collision

When two oceanic plates collide, one runs over the other which causes it to sink into the mantle forming a subduction zone. The subducting plate is bent downward to form a very deep depression in the ocean floor called a trench. The worlds deepest parts of the ocean are found along trenches.
E.g. The Mariana Trench is 11 km deep!

Continental-continental convergence

Transform Boundaries
Where plates slide past each other

Above: View of the San Andreas transform fault

Tranform Boundaries

Changing Earth

Plates are Moving apart

Volcanoes and Plate Tectonics

whats the connection?

Pacific Ring of Fire

Volcanism is mostly focused at plate margins

Volcanoes are formed by:

- Subduction - Rifting - Hotspots

Pacific Ring of Fire

Hotspot volcanoes

What are Hotspot Volcanoes?

Hot mantle plumes breaching the surface in the middle of a tectonic plate

The Hawaiian island chain are examples of hotspot volcanoes.

Photo: Tom Pfeiffer / www.volcanodiscovery.com

The tectonic plate moves over a fixed hotspot forming a chain of volcanoes.

The volcanoes get younger from one end to the other.

Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics

whats the connection?

 As with volcanoes, earthquakes are not randomly distributed over the globe

Figure showing the distribution of earthquakes around the globe

At the boundaries between plates, friction causes them to stick together. When built up energy causes them to break, earthquakes occur.

Where do earthquakes form?

Figure showing the tectonic setting of earthquakes

Plate Tectonics Summary

The Earth is made up of 3 main layers (core, mantle, crust) On the surface of the Earth are tectonic plates that slowly move around the globe Plates are made of crust and upper mantle (lithosphere) There are 2 types of plate There are 3 types of plate boundaries Volcanoes and Earthquakes are closely linked to the margins of the tectonic plates

Volcanoes and Plate Tectonics

whats the connection?

Pacific Ring of Fire

Volcanism is mostly focused at plate margins

Volcanoes are formed by:

- Subduction - Rifting - Hotspots

Pacific Ring of Fire

Hotspot volcanoes

What are Hotspot Volcanoes?

Hot mantle plumes breaching the surface in the middle of a tectonic plate

The Hawaiian island chain are examples of hotspot volcanoes.

Photo: Tom Pfeiffer / www.volcanodiscovery.com

The tectonic plate moves over a fixed hotspot forming a chain of volcanoes.

The volcanoes get younger from one end to the other.

Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics

whats the connection?

 As with volcanoes, earthquakes are not randomly distributed over the globe

Figure showing the distribution of earthquakes around the globe

At the boundaries between plates, friction causes them to stick together. When built up energy causes them to break, earthquakes occur.

Where do earthquakes form?

Figure showing the tectonic setting of earthquakes

Plate Tectonics Summary

The Earth is made up of 3 main layers (core, mantle, crust) On the surface of the Earth are tectonic plates that slowly move around the globe Plates are made of crust and upper mantle (lithosphere) There are 2 types of plate There are 3 types of plate boundaries Volcanoes and Earthquakes are closely linked to the margins of the tectonic plates