SYS OVERVIEW

INPUT, PROCESS, OUTPUT & STORAGE

Most OS provide functions to read and write data on files. It then translates requests for op on files into op that the disk controller can carry out. The OS performs four basic op, Input Processing Output Storage

BOOT PROCESS

INITIALIZING & TESTING THE SYS HARDWARE

For an OS to run, it must be loaded into the Random Access Memory (RAM). When a cptr is first turned on, it launches the bootstrap loader. The primary functions of bootstrap are to test the cptr hardware and to loc and load the OS into RAM. During the BIOS firmware routines, three major sets of op happen:
Power-On Self-Tests or POST Initialization BIOS moves the starting address and mode information into the DMA controller then Master Boot Record (MBR)

CONT
To test the cptr hardware, the bootstrap program runs the power-on self-test or POST. In this test, the central processing unit (CPU) checks itself first and then checks the cptr sys timer. The POST checks the RAM by writing data to each RAM chip and then reading that data. Any diff indicates a problem. If the POST finds errors, it sends a message to the cptr monitor.

CONT
If the POST finds errors that cannot be displayed on the monitor, it sends errors in the form of beeps. The POST sends one beep and the screen begins to display OS loading messages once the bootstrap has determined that the cptr has passed the POST. The meaning of any beep code depends on the mfr of the BIOS. There are 3 maj mfr of BIOS chips.

Loading the OS and Hardware Config

The next step for the bootstrap program is to loc the OS and copy it to the cptr RAM. The bootstrap loader first looks to see if the OS boot file is loc on a floppy drive. If not, it looks for it on the HDD. If the OS is not found on either the floppy drive or the HDD, the bootstrap loader will look for the OS on the built-in CD ROM.

The Boot Seq

The no. of events that happen in the boot process depends on the version of Windows and whether it is a cold boot or a warm boot. Warm Boot Performed whenever the PC is restarted or reset with the power still on. Cold Boot Starts whenever the PC power switch is turned on.

HARDWARE COMPONENTS

Cptr Cases
Cptr cases are either desktop or tower models. The desktop model sits on a desk horizontally. The monitor can be set on top. The tower model stands upright in a vertical posn that allows easy placement on the floor. Mini-tower, mid-tower, and full tower cases are aval. A power supply provides the needed voltage to power the various electronic ccts that make up the PC.

CONT

CONT

POWER SUPPLIES
A power supply provides the needed voltage to power the various electronic ccts that make up the PC. It receives external power and AC elec. It is contained in a metal box. Within this box, a transformer converts the current that is generated from std outlets into voltages and current flows that the cptr parts need to op. A fan instl in the power supply prevents the cptr and its components from overheating by maintaining an air flow.

COOLING SYS
The power supply fan helps prevent the cptr components from overheating by maintaining airflow in the case. A heat sink is made of a material that absorbs generated heat. It is designed to disperse the heat away from the CPU Cptr cases made of aluminum create a much cooler environment for the instl components. Liquid Cooled Cases (New). They intro water as a cooling agent. Liquid cooling units fit most cases that have a place to mount a back exhaust fan.

THE MOTHERBOARD
Everything else in the sys plugs into it, is con by it, and depends on it to comm with other devices on the sys. The sys board is the largest of the PCBs and every sys has one. It houses the CPU, the controller circuitry, the bus, RAM, expansion slots for addl boards, and ports for external devices.

CONT
The motherboard chipset determines the motherboards compatibility with several other vital sys components. It consists of a gp of microcircuits contained on several ICs or combined into one or two very large scale integration (VLSI) ICs. These are chips that have over 20,000 ccts. The motherboard chipset determines motherboard performance and limitations.

MOTHERBOARD FORM FACTORS

Form factor Dimensions (in.) Notes Used by older PCs. Becoming outdated.

Baby AT

8.5 X 10-13

ATX

12 X 9.6

The most common form factor in use today.

Mini ATX

11.2 X 8.2

Used in newer, smaller PCs.

LPX

9 X 11-13

Found in older PCs. Uses a riser card to save space.

Mini LPX

8-9 X 10-11

Found in older PCs. Uses a riser card to save space.

NLX

8-9 X10-13.6

Found in newer PCs. Setup provides easier access to components.

Most new sys come with the ATX motherboard form factor. Motherboards are usually described by their form factors. Form factors describe the phy dimensions of the motherboard. The two most common form factors currently in use are the Baby AT motherboard and the ATX motherboard.

MOTHERBOARD COMPONENTS
The components found on a motherboard can vary depending on its age and level of integration. Some motherboards will have more or fewer chips or devices on board. These are the most common items found on a typical modern motherboard.

CPU
Often ref to as the Brain of a cptr, the CPU contains two basic components
Con Unit. Instructs the rest of the cptr sys on how to fol a program instructions. Arithmetic / Logic Unit (ALU). The ALU performs both arithmetic and logical op. Arithmetic op are fundamental math op.

CONT
The processor handles most of the op that are req of the cptr by processing instructions and sending signals out, checking for connectivity, and ensuring that op and hardware are functioning properly. It acts as a messenger to maj components such as RAM, the monitor, and disk drives.

CONT
Terminology like socket 7, socket 370, socket 423, or Slot 1, will frequently be encountered. Socket X (X being any numerical number) is a descriptive term for the way certain processors plug into a computer motherboard so that it makes contact with the motherboard's built-in circuitry or data bus. Slot-type processors had a very brief lifespan (just about a year in the market).

Intel for its Pentium II processor moved from the socket configuration to a processor packaged in a cartridge that fits into a slot in the motherboard.

CONT
The current family of the Intel Pentium microprocessors incl the Pentium II, III, IV and Xeon. The Pentium class is the current std for processor chips. Improvements in processor speeds allow the components to get data in and out of the chip quicker. The best performing AMD processors are the Athlon, Thunderbird and Duron series. They are currently the most used microprocessors, along side the Intel Processors.

CONT
CPU descriptions as Pentium 133, Pentium 166, or Pentium 200 are well known. These no. are specifications that indicate the max (reliable) op speed at which the CPU can exec instructions. The CPU speed is not con by the microprocessor itself, but by an external clock loc on the motherboard. The speed of the processor is determined by the freq of the clock signal. Three factors determine how much info can be processed at any given time: The size of the internal bus The size of the address bus The processor's speed ratings

BIOS
Read only memory (ROM) chips, loc on the motherboard, contain instructions that can be directly accessed by the microprocessor. Data transfer from ROM is faster than any disk, but slower than RAM. Some examples of ROM chips that can be found on the motherboard incl BIOS ROM, electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM), and Flash ROM.

CONT
The instructions and data in the ROM chip that con the boot process and the cptr hardware are known as the Basic Input / Output System (BIOS), sometimes called firmware. The ROM chip that contains the firmware is called the ROM BIOS chip. It is also ref to as ROM BIOS, or simply BIOS, and is usually marked BIOS on the motherboard. The responsibility of the BIOS is to serve as a liaison between the cptr OS software and the various hardware components that sp it.

CONT
EPROM and EEPROM are ROM chips that can be erased and reprogrammed. Erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) is a special type of programmable read-only memory (PROM) that can be erased by shining ultraviolet light through a clear window on top of the chip. Flash ROMs are spec EEPROM chips that have been dev as a result of advancements in EEPROM tech. Flash ROM holds the firmware, or BIOS, in most new sys.

EXPANSION SLOTS
Expansion slots (sockets) are receptacles on the cptr motherboard that accept PCBs. Common expansion slots likely to be encountered incl the fol:
Industry Std Architecture (ISA ) Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI ) Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP)

RISER CARDS
Riser Card. Used when a cptr is fully loaded to phy extends a slot so a chip or card can be plugged in. In low-profile, space-saving cases, cards are plugged into riser cards that reside parallel with the motherboard.

CONT
Audio/Modem Riser (AMR). A plug-in card for an Intel motherboard. The AMR evolved into the Comm and Networking Riser (CNR) card, which added LAN and home networking functions. The CNR is a 30-pin interface that accommodates two formats making various audio / modem and audio / network comb possible.
AMR CNR

BUS TYPES
All the basic components of the cptr are connected together by comm paths that are ref to as buses. There are three maj sys bus types that can be ident based on the type of info they carry. Address Bus. (a uni-directional pathway for data flow) Data Bus. (a bi-directional pathway for data flow) Control Bus. (carries the con and timing sigs needed to coord the activities of the entire cptr)

MEMORY COMPONENTS

RAM
RAM is the place in a cptr where the OS, application programs, and data in current use are kept so that they can be quickly reached by the processor. RAM is considered temporary, or volatile memory. The contents of RAM are lost when the cptr power is turned off. The more RAM a cptr has, the more capacity the cptr has to hold and process large programs and files.

CONT
There are two classes of RAM that are commonly used today. These are Static RAM (SRAM) and Dynamic RAM (DRAM). SRAM is relatively more expensive, but it is fast and holds data when the power is turned off for a brief pd of time. This is useful in such circumstances as an unexpected loss of power. It is used for cache memory. DRAM is inexpensive and somewhat slow, and requires an uninterrupted power supply to maintain the data. DRAM stores data in tiny capacitor that must be refreshed to maintain the data. Once the power is turned off, the data is lost.

IDENTIFYING SIMMS & DIMMS

A SIMM plugs into the motherboard with a 72-pin or 30-pin connector. The pins connect to the sys bus, creating an electronic path through which memory data can flow to and from other sys components.

CONT
A DIMM plugs into the sys memory bank using a 168-pin connector. The pins estb a connection with the sys bus, creating an electronic path through which data can flow between the memory chip and other sys components.

CACHE / COAST MEMORY

Cache is a specialized form of cptr chip or firmware that is designed to enhance memory performance. Cache memory stores frequently used info and transfers it to the processor faster than RAM. Most cptr have two separate memory cache levels:
L1 cache is loc on the CPU L2 cache is loc between the CPU and DRAM

CONT
Some sys use COAST modules. These modules provide cache memory on many Pentiumbased sys. The COAST module is noted for its reliability and speed because it uses the pipeline-burst cache, which is significantly faster than an SRAM cache. Some sys offer both SRAM sockets and a COAST module socket. The COAST module essentially resembles a SIMM, except that it is taller and has a diff connector.

DISPLAY COMPONENTS

MONITORS / DISPLAY DEVICES

Monitors are aval in diff types, sizes, and char. When purchasing a new cptr, the monitor may have to be purchased separately. Understanding the char of a good monitor will help determine which is best suited for a specific sys.

CONT
The fol terms relate to monitors. Pixels are picture elements, Dot pitch, refresh rate, Color depth, Video RAM (VRAM). Resolution varies based on the number of pixels. Monitor screen sizes are measured in inches, just like televisions. The most common sizes are 14", 15", 17", 19", and 21" screens Most PCs display many colors on the screen. A summary of the most commonly used color depths: 256 colors (8-bit color) 65,536 colors (16-bit color, also called 65K or Hi-Color) 16 million colors (24-bit color, also called True Color) 4 billion colors (32-bit color, also called True Color)

VIDEO CARDS
The video card or video adapter is the interface between the cptr and monitor. The video card tells the monitor which pixels to light up, what color the pixels should be and the intensity of the color. The display cap of a cptr depend on both the video adapter and the monitor.

CONNECTOR COMPONENTS

SERIAL AND PARALLEL PORTS

All peripheral devices that connect to the cptr use connectors on the back of the cptr known as ports. A serial port can be used to connect devices that use a serial interface such as a modem, scanner, mouse, etc. A parallel port is a socket on the cptr that is used to connect a printer or other peripheral device such as a portable HDD, tape backup, scanner, or a CD-ROM.

PS/2 PORTS/ 6-PIN MINI DIN, 5-PIN DIN

PS/2 keyboard or PS/2 mouse ports are used to connect the PC to its keyboard and mouse.

UNIVERSAL SERIAL BUS (USB) & FIREWIRE

The Universal Serial Bus (USB) is an external port and allows user to connect upto 127 external PC peripherals, incl USB keyboards, mice, printers, modems, scanners, and external disk drives. FireWire, also known as i.LINK or IEEE 1394 is a high-speed, platformindependent comm bus that interconnects digital devices such as digital video cameras, printers, scanners, digital cameras, and HDDs.

IDE, EIDE, ULTRA & SCSI CON

The internal HDD is connected to a disk con with a cable. The HDD and other devices can use one of two types of interface con to work with the cptr. These incl the Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics (EIDE), and Small Cptr Sys Interface (SCSI, pronounced "scuzzy") connections.

CONT
Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) is a type of hardware interface widely used to connect HDDs, CD-ROMs, and tape drives to a PC. 20GB IDE HDDs have become entry level. The IDE interface is officially known as the AT Attachment (ATA) specification. Enhanced IDE (EIDE) or ATA-2 disk drives is the "new and improved" IDE. The EIDE interface can handle up to 8.4 GB or more. Ultra ATA disk drives are typically much faster than the older ATA and ATA-2 disk drives. Typical Ultra drive sizes can go up to 50GB or more.

CONT
SCSI devices have the con electronics on each of the drives. However, SCSI is a much more adv interface con than ATA-2/EIDE. It is ideal for high-end cptr, incl network servers. SCSI devices are typically connected in a series, forming a chain that is commonly ref to as a daisy chain. There are three types of SCSI termination : Passive Active Forced Perfection

SCSI Disk Types

Three maj versions of the SCSI std are currently on the market, SCSI-1, SCSI2, and SCSI-3. To help identify the signaling sys used by SCSI devices (con and drives), a sys of symbols has been devised to identify the diff signaling sys.

CONT
SCSI-1, was used by many Apple cptr in the early 1980s. By todays stds it was rather slow. SCSI-2 uses two diff signaling sys, known as single-ended interface and differential interface. The two signaling sys are incompatible and cannot be mixed on the same SCSI bus. This figure shows an example of a 50-pin, 68-pin, and 80-pin (SCA) connector. SCSI-3 is the latest std of the SCSI family. It combines all the best features of the previous SCSI stds.

STORAGE COMPONENTS

FLOPPY DRIVES
A Floppy Disk Drive (FDD) magnetically reads and writes info onto floppy diskettes, which are a form of removable storage media. The main drawback to the floppy diskette is that it only holds 1.44 MB of info.

THE HARD DISK DRIVE

The HDD has a much larger storage capacity than the floppy for longterm storage. It stores programs and files, as well as the OS. Typically, the HDD is an internal drive that cannot be removed from the cptr.

CONT
Hard Drive Components Disk platters, Read / Write Heads, Head Actuator Assy, Spindle Motor, Logic / Cct Board, Bezel / Faceplate, Config Jumpers, and Interface Connectors.

CONT
Disk platters are the actual media on which data is stored in the HDD. A HDD typically has two to ten platters. They are usually either 2 or 3 in diameter and are typically const of aluminum or a glassceramic comp material. Platters are stacked with spaces between them on a hub that holds them in posn, separate from one another. The hub is also called the spindle.

CONT
The HDD functions in much the same way as a floppy disk drive. The disk platters spin at a high speed while the drive heads access the media to conduct read or write ops. PCs have at least one HDD instl inside the sys unit. If more storage capacity is needed, another HDD can usually be added. The capacity of the HDD is a measure of how much info it can store.

CD-ROMs
A CD-ROM drive is a secondary storage device that reads info stored on a compact disc. The CD-ROM is an optical media. They are used for installing programs, running applications that instl some of the files to the hard drive, and executing the program by transferring the data from the CD-ROM to memory while the program is running. The maj components within a CDROM drive are the optical head assy, head actuator mechanism, spindle motor, loading mechanism, connectors and jumpers, and logic board.

CONT
Data is stored in the form of indentations and bumps on the reflective surface of every CDROM disk. The indentations are called pits, and the bumps are called lands. The most imp specification for a CD-ROM drive is its speed, or how fast the disc will spin. The faster the disc spins, the faster the data can be transferred to the cptr memory. Two other imp specifications to consider are the access time and data transfer rate.

DVD - DVDRW
The DVD looks like a CD, but the storage capacity is significantly higher. For this reason, many software mfrs are starting to put programs, manuals, and other documentation on one DVD instead of multiple CDs. Recordable DVD drives will become std on cptr sys just like the CD drive did.

BACKUP HARDWARE
Tape drives are most commonly used as the device for data backup on a network server disk drive. There are a variety of tape devices that use diff tape formats for storing data. New USB storage devices can easily save and access 16MB, 32MB, 64MB, 128MB, 256MB, 512MB and 1GB.

NETWORK COMPONENTS

MODEMS
A modem is the primary way to connect to the internet with Windows 9x through a dialup networking connection. A modem is a device that converts the digital data used by cptr into analog signals that is suitable for transmission over a telephone line, and converts the analog signals back to a digital signal at the destination.

NETWORK INTERFACE CARD (NIC)

A Network Interface Card (NIC), is used to connect a local cptr to a gp of other cptr so they can share data and resources in a networked environment. All network interface cards are designed to use Ethernet, Token Ring, or another similar protocol.

CONT
NICs come in form of expansion cards (PCI or ISA) that can be instl in one of the cptr expansion slots. The network cable plugs to the cptr through the adapter card or NIC. This is possible due to a connector type known as the RJ-45 connector it has 8 wires inside.

SYSTEM RESOURCES

WHAT ARE SYS RESOURCES?

Sys resources are shared between the diff hardware components or devices of the cptr sys that need to comm with CPU. The CPU is a complete cpt engine that is fabricated on a single chip. It not only con the functions of the cptr, but also handles requests from many input and output devices. The CPU is only capable of handling one request at a time.

INTERRUPT REQUESTS (IRQ'S)

Various hardware devices may want to tell the CPU that they have some info available that is ready for tfr. The devices indicate this by making an interrupt request, or IRQ. It is a gen rule that IRQs cannot be shared. A device's IRQ will cause the OS to stop momentarily as it asks the CPU to svc its request.

DIRECT MEMORY ACCESS (DMA)

Direct Memory Access (DMA) channels allow devices to bypass the processor and directly access the cptr memory. DMA channels are typically used by high-speed comm devices for transferring large amounts of data at high speeds. Examples incl sound cards, some network cards, some SCSI cards, some disk drives, and some tape backup drives.

INPUT / OUTPUT (I/O) ADDRESSES

An I/O port no. is a memory address where data is temporarily stored as it moves in and out of the devices. The I/O address is very similar to a post office box. As mail comes in, it is stored temporarily in a post office box. No two boxes can have the same number or the mail can end up in the wrong box. No two devices can have the same I/O address.

PORTABLE DEVICES

NOTEBOOK CPTRS
Notebook cptrs incorporate the sys unit, input unit, and output unit into a single, lightweight package, that can be carried around by the user. They are also called portables, laptop cptrs, palmtops, or personal digital assistant (PDA), depending on their size and what they can do.

PORTABLE HARDWARE
Portables are built with the intention of being lightweight and fitting within a certain size or form factor. Portable devices incl batteries, hard drives, PCMCIA Cards, and memory. Originally, portables used Nickel Cadmium (Ni-Cad) batteries and were in an external battery pack that would attach to the portable device.

CONT
More recently, Nickel MetalHydride (NiMH) and LithiumIon batteries have been used in portable devices. These batteries usually last for a little over two hours, depending on their size and the power consumption by the device. Hard drives have been dev to be smaller and use less power to accommodate size and power limitations.

PCMCIA CARDS
The PC Memory Card Intl Association (PCMCIA) card, is a spec expansion card type designed primarily to accommodate the needs of the portable cptr market. There are three types of PCMCIA slots and cards:

Type I cards are 3.3mm thick and used as memory expansion units Type II cards are 5mm thick and are used for any expansion device except hard drives. Type III cards are 10.5mm thick and designed to be used solely for hard drives.

PORTABLE CPTR DISPLAYS

Notebook and laptop cptrs use nonCRT type displays, also ref to as flat panel displays. Two examples of such displays are Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) and gasplasma panels. They are much lighter and more compact than CRT monitors. They require much less electrical energy to op. Both types of display units can be op from batteries

DOCKING STA / PORT REPLICATOR

A docking sta is a device that can be used to allow a portable PC to use the normal hardware devices associated with desktop cptrs. A port replicator is similar to a docking sta. It connects multiple peripherals to a notebook but it does not contain any slots for expansion, speakers or peripherals.

Docking Station

Port Replicator

UPGRADING & TROUBLESHOOTING LAPTOP CPTRS

Use the sys tools on a reg basis to keep the sys running smoothly. Overheating can cause the sys to slow down and malfunction. Keeping the notebook cooler can be as simple as raising the notebook slightly to allow air to circulate under the cptr. Notebook cooler pads can be purchased that utilize fans powered by the USB port help keep the notebook cool.

INFRARED DEVICE
Infrared tech, also known as Infrared Radiation (IR) is used for wrls tx between cptr devices and in remote cons for television and stereo sys. To successfully link two devices, there must be a tx and receiver with an unobstructed LOS between the devices.

WRLS ACCESS PTs

Radio signals are used in wrls networking technologies to enable cptrs to broadcast their info to one another using. A wrls access pt is utilized so that cptrs in a client / server network comm.