What is Geology?

The word Geology has been derived from the Greek word Geo means Earth and Logos means Science. Thus geology is the science dealing with origin, age and structure of earth on the one hand and with evolution, modification and extinction of surface and subsurface feature (like mountains, valleys,plains and plateaus) on the other hand.

It also deals with materials making up the earth and with the nature of the surrounding gaseous envelope (atmosphere) and vast expense of the liquid and frozen water (hydrosphere). The interaction of the various earth zones and result caused by them also fall in the domains of geology. Similarly geology also includes the study of various natural dynamic and physicochemical process operating on within the earth and the agents and force involved and evolved in such process.

Branches of Geology
From the definition of geology it is evident that the subject is very vast; hence the necessity of subdivisions. Following are the important and well established branch of geology

Physical Geology: It deals with origin, development and ultimate fate of various surface feature of the earth on the one hand and structure of the earth as a whole on the other hand. The role play by internal (volcanism, earthquake) and external (wind, water, ice action) agents on the physical feature of the earth makes a major domain of this branch.

Geomorphology: This branch confines itself

to the study of the features of the surface of the earth, primarily the land surface and encompasses their development, structure, modifications in space and time and characteristics form. Thus, evolution of slopes, depressions, plains, plateau and valley by various aerial and sub aerial agencies are few of important subjects of geomorphology

Geotectonic: The study of the major structural

features of the earths crust or the broad structure of a region and deformation caused by them.

Structural Geology: Rocks formed within or on the surface of the earth are subject to a number of forces. These forces might operate either during or after the formation of rocks and therefore responsible for the present shape and disposition of the rock bodies on the one hand and for the size, shape and especially arrangement of the component units of the rock on the other hand. So that the branch of geology which deals with mode of occurrence of rock bodies is known as structural Geology.

Crystallography: Crystallography is the

branch of geology which envisage a detailed study, with respect to internal structure and external feature of the crystalline minerals or crystal.

Mineralogy: Minerals are the natural

building units of which the lithosphere of earth is made up. A study of these minerals, their formation, aggregation and properties is the starting point for the study of the materials of the earth. Mineralogy is the branch of geology that deals with all aspects of minerals.

Optical mineralogy is the study of minerals and rocks by measuring their optical properties. Most commonly, rock and mineral samples are prepared as thin sections or grain mounts for study in the laboratory with a petrographic microscope. Optical mineralogy is used to identify the mineralogical composition of geological materials in order to help reveal their origin and evolution.

Petrology: Minerals form natural and massive aggregates called rocks which are the building blocks of the crust and underlying zones of earth crust. Formation of various groups of rocks, their composition and various types, and their geographic and geologic distribution, all are studied under this specific rock dealing branch, petrology.

Stratigraphy : It is also known as Historical

Geology and deals with the past history of the earth as deciphered from the study of its rockstratified and unstratified. Rock are treated as page of Earth history, each having some information about the time during which it was formed and also the imprints time has left on it since its formation. When interpreted, rocks can reveal a lot about climate, biological and environmental conditions of the past.

Geologic Time
The concept of geologic time is new (staggering) to many nongeologists.
The current estimate is that the Earth is ~4,600,000,000 (4.6 billion) years old. As humans we have a hard time understanding the amount of time required for geologic events. We have a good idea of how long a century is. One thousand centuries is only 100,000 years. That huge amount of time is only 0.002% of the age of the Earth! An appreciation for the magnitude of geologic time is important because many processes are very gradual.

Sequence stratigraphy is a type of stratigraphy, which is simply defined as the subdivision of sedimentary basins into genetically related strata bounded by unconformities and their correlative conformities (Mitchum, 1977).

Sequence stratigraphy is powerful tool especially for petroleum geology where by it can predict the spatial and temporal (space and time) relationships of facies that lie away from areas of data control

Paleontology:

The name is derived from Greek word Palaios means Ancient and Ontos means being. It is the study of fossil plants and animals that are found in the rocks of past geological periods. They indicate the climate, age and environment of deposition of the rock unit in which they are found. Paleontology is the essential tool of the Stratigrapher for purposes of co-relation, strata identification, establishment of sequences and determination of environments (paleoecology).

Micropaleontology is that branch of paleontology which studies microfossils.

Microfossils are fossils generally not larger than four millimeters, and commonly smaller than one millimeter, the study of which requires the use of light or electron microscopy. Fossils which can be studied with the naked eye or low-powered magnification, such as a hand lens, are referred to as macrofossils. Obviously, it can be hard to decide whether or not some organisms should be considered microfossils, and so there is no fixed size boundary.

Radiolaria

Fossil nummulitid foraminiferans showing microspheric and megalospheric individuals

Economic Geology: It deals with the study minerals and rocks and other such material (coal and petroleum) occurring in the crust of Earth that can be economically exploited for the benefit of material.

Economic mineral have been subdivided in to three categoriesNatural Fuels Metallic Minerals Non- Metallic Minerals

Natural Fuels: Natural Fuels, which include petroleum, coal and radioactive minerals, are widely used as fuels or for industrial purposes. Metallic Minerals: The Metallic minerals, with metallic lustier, are chiefly utilized for the extraction of metals. Gold, Silver, Copper, Lead, Zinc, Manganese, Iron, Tin etc.

Non Metallic Minerals: Non Metallic minerals are dull or lusterless. Clay, Limestone, Dolomite, Magnetite, Bauxite, Mica etc.

Geochemistry: It is the branch of geology which deals with the study of distribution and abundance relationship of different elements and their compounds in the earth.
Isotope geochemistry:Determination of the relative and absolute concentrations of the elements and their isotopes in the earth and on earth's surface. Examination of the distribution and movements of elements in different parts of the earth (crust, mantle, hydrosphere etc.) and in minerals with the goal to determine the underlying system of distribution and movement. Cosmochemistry: Analysis of the distribution of elements and their isotopes in the cosmos. Biogeochemistry: Field of study focusing on the effect of life on the chemistry of the earth. Organic geochemistry: A study of the role of processes and compounds that are derived from living or once-living organisms. Regional, environmental and exploration geochemistry: Applications to environmental, hydrological and mineral exploration studies.

Cosmochemistry or chemical cosmology is concerned with the origin and development of the substances of the universe. The main focus are the elements and their isotopes, primarily (but not always) within Solar System objects.

Geohydrology or Hydrogeology: It is a comparatively new branch that have evolved out of interaction between geology and hydrology and deals specifically with the geological settings of ground water hydrology.

Hydrogeology (hydro- meaning water, and -geology meaning the study of the Earth) is the area of geology that deals with the distribution and movement of groundwater in the soil and rocks of the Earth's crust,

Mining Geology: It is geology as applied to

mining practice, that is for the exploitation of economic mineral deposits. Mode of formation of economic minerals, their distribution and response to fracturing processes are some important aspects in which the mining engineer would be greatly interested. Study of these geological characters would be involved in mining geology.

Engineering Geology: This is another

rather new field of study that has developed due to interaction between the civil engineering practice and geological sciences. This field deals with the geotechnical study of the construction sites and construction materials, and as such has great importance in safe, economic and stable designs of the engineering projects.

Rock Mechanics: It deals exclusively with

study of behavior of the rocks (insitu and in laboratories) under loads imposed upon them naturally and artificially, statically and dynamically, and all possible combination of situation. This also implies study of a those factors- geological otherwise that may responsible for such observed or expected behavior of rocks under force fields

Geophysics: In this branch, certain important

principles and process of physics are applied to study and solve many geological problems. The study of the constitution of the Earth and of the nature of physical forces operating on within the Earth are very special subject of geophysics.

A Tectonophysics, the study of the physical processes that cause and result from plate tectonics Geodynamics, the study of modes of transport deformation within the Earth: rock deformation, mantle flow and convection, heat flow, lithosphere dynamics Seismology, the study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic waves through the Earth Most of our knowledge of the Structure of the Earth is derived from seismology Shallow seismology is used in exploration geophysics (to find oil and gas) and for environmental characterization of the subsurface Geomagnetism, the study of the Earth's magnetic field, including its origin.

Mathematical Geophysics, The development and applications of mathematical methods and techniques for the solution of geophysical problems.

Geophysical surveying:
Exploration and engineering geophysics, using surface methods to detect or infer the presence and position of concentrations of ore minerals and hydrocarbons Archaeological geophysics, for archaeological imaging or mapping

Environmental and Engineering Geophysics, for locating underground storage tanks (USTs) or utilities, Unexploded ordnance (UXO), delineating landfills, locating voids or potential subsidence, finding depth to, P-wave or S-wave velocity of, or rippability of bedrock, or the pathway of groundwater movement

Applications of micropaleontology
Microfossils are especially noteworthy for their importance in biostratigraphy. Since microfossils are often extremely abundant, widespread, and quick to appear and disappear from the stratigraphic record, they constitute ideal index fossils from a biostratigraphic perspective. In addition, the planktonic and nektonic habits of some microfossils gives them the added bonus of appearing across a wide range of facies or paleoenvironments, as well as having near-global distribution, making biostratigraphic correlation even more powerful and effective. Microfossils also provide some of the most important records of global environmental change on long-timescales, particularly from deep-sea sediments. Across vast areas of the ocean floor, the shells of planktonic micro-organisms sinking from surface waters provide the dominant source of sediment, and they continuously accumulate (typically at rates of 20-50 million per million years). Study of changes in assemblages of microfossils and of changes in their shell chemistry (e.g., oxygen isotope composition) are fundamental to research on climate change in the geological past. In addition to providing an excellent tool for sedimentary rock-body dating and for paleoenvironmental reconstruction heavily used in both petroleum geology and paleoceanography micropaleontology has also found a number of less orthodox applications, such as its growing role in forensic police investigation or in determining the provenance of archaeological artefacts.