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Organising the nervous system

2.4.6

Responding to the environment


Living things are able to respond to both internal and external environment. All organisms need method of communication between their sensors and their responsive systems. Animals need to be able to coordinate a vast set of responses if they are to stay alive, from the coordinated voluntary muscle actions to the fine control of balance.

Subdividing the nervous system


The NS coordinates the actions of the body through electrical impulses, it works in conjunction with the endocrine system. Both are essential in maintaining life in humans. It is structurally and functionally divided into subsystems, this help us describe nervous actions and to understand coordination processes.

CNS and peripheral nervous system


the CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord. It is made up of grey matter and white matter. Grey is non-myelinated and white is myelinated. The presence of myelin makes the long fibres appear white. The peripheral nervous system is made up of the neurones that carry impulses into and out of the CNS.

Sensory and Motor systems


Sensory neurones carry impulses from the many receptors in and around the body to the CNS. Motor neurones carry impulses from the CNS to the effector organs. Many neurones are bundled together and covered in connective tissue to form nerves. The motor system is further subdivided: Somatic - motor neurones carry impulses from the CNS to skeletal muscle, which are under voluntary control. Autonomic - motor neurones carry impulses from the CNS to cardiac muscle, to smooth muscle in the gut wall and to glands, none of which are under voluntary control.

The autonomic NS
Autonomic translates as 'self-governing' because the system operates to a large extent independantly of conscious control. It is responsible for controlling the majority of homeostatic mechanisms and so plays a vital role in regulating the internal environment of the body within set parameters. It is also capable of controlling the heightened responses associated with the stress response. Organisation Most autonomic neurones are non-myelinated whilst most somatic neurones are myelinated. Autonomic connections to effectors always consist of at least two neurones whereas somatic consist of only one. The two neurones connect at a swellin known as a ganglion. Autonomic motor neurones occur in two types: sympathetic and parasympathetic

Parasympathetic and sympathetic


They differ in both structure and action, they are often referred to as antagonistic because the action of one system opposes the the action of the other.
Parasympathetic
Most active in sleep and relaxation The neurones of a pathway are linked at a ganglion within the target tissue. Pre-ganglion neurones vary in length. Post-ganglion neurones secrete acetylcholine as the neurotransmitter at the synapse between neurone and effector. Effects include: decreased heart rate, pupil constriction, decreased breath. Sympathetic Most active in times of stress The neurones of a pathway are linked at a ganglion just outside of the spinal cord, pre-ganglion neurones are v short. Post-ganglion neurones secrete noradrenaline at the synapse between neurone and effector. Effects include: increased heart rate, pupil dilation, increased breath.

Questions
Explain why the control of pupil diameter in the eye is described as an autonomic reflex? A reflex action involves sensory and motor neurones passing through the CNS. These actions involve a stimulus and an appropriate and immediate response to that stimulus. Pupil diameter is controlled by autonomic neurones. Where too much light enters the eye, a reflex action involving these neurones leads to constriction of the pupil by contraction of the circular muscles of the iris.

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