81

John A. Schreifels
Chemistry 212
Chapter 21-1
Chapter 21
Nuclear Chemistry
82
John A. Schreifels
Chemistry 212
Chapter 21-2
Overview
Radioactivity and Nuclear Bombardment Reactions
Radioactivity
Nuclear Bombardment Reactions
Radiations and Matter: Detection and Biological Effects
Rate of Radioactive Decay
Applications of Radioactive Isotopes
Energy of Nuclear Reactions
Mass Energy Calculations
Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion
83
John A. Schreifels
Chemistry 212
Chapter 21-3
Nuclear Chemistry
In this chapter we will look at two types of nuclear
reactions.

Radioactive decay is the process in which a nucleus
spontaneously disintegrates, giving off radiation.

Nuclear bombardment reactions are those in which a
nucleus is bombarded, or struck, by another nucleus or by a
nuclear particle.


84
John A. Schreifels
Chemistry 212
Chapter 21-4
Nuclear Reactions and their characteristics
Nuclear Chemistry: study of changes in structure of
nuclei and subsequent changes in chemistry.
Radioactive nuclei: spontaneously change structure
and emit radiation.
Differences between nuclear and chemical reactions:
Much larger release in energy in nuclear reaction.
Isotopes show identical chemical reactions but different
nuclear reactions.
Nuclear reactions not sensitive to chemical environment.
Nuclear reaction produces different elements.
Rate of nuclear reaction not dependent upon temperature.
85
John A. Schreifels
Chemistry 212
Chapter 21-5
NUCLEAR STRUCTURE & Stability

nucleon: any nuclear particle, e.g. protons, p, and neutrons, n.
Nucleus held together by strong attractive forces; but electrostatic
repulsion causes large atoms (>83 protons) to be unstable.
Let Z = atomic # (# of protons) and A = Z + # of neutrons. Isotopes
represented as .

has 8 p, 8 e

, and 8 n;

has 8 p, 8 e

, and 9 n;

has 8 p, 8 e, and 10 n.

Structure deduced from emission of radiation from unstable particles:
.o ray = attracted towards negatively charged plate Positively charged.
.| ray = attracted towards positively charged plate Negatively charged.
. ray = not attracted to either plate Neutral.
X
A
Z
O
16
8
O
17
8
O
18
8
86
John A. Schreifels
Chemistry 212
Chapter 21-6
NUCLEAR REACTIONS
Radioactivity: nucleus unstable and spontaneously disintegrates.
Nuclear Bombardment: causes nuclei to disintegrate due to
bomdarbment with very energetic particles.
Particles in nuclear reactions:





Positron: positively charged particle with same mass as electron.
Gamma ray: Very high energy photon ( = 10
12
M; Visible: = 10
7
M).
Nuclear reaction written maintaining mass and charge balance.
E.g. + + ..
1. Proton
H
1
1
or p
1
1

2. Neutron
n
1
0

3. Electron
e
0
1
or |

0
1

4. Positron
e
0
1 +
or |
+
0
1

5. Gamma ray

0
0


C
14
6
N
14
7
e
0
1
87
John A. Schreifels
Chemistry 212
Chapter 21-7
RADIOACTIVITY
Types of Radioactive decay:
Beta emission: Converts neutron into a proton by emission of
energetic electron; atomic # increases:

E.g. Determine product for following reaction:
Alpha emission: emits He particle.
E.g. Determine product:
Positron emission: Converts proton to neutron:
E.g. Determine product of
Gamma emission: no change in mass or charge but usually
part of some other decay process.
E.g.
Electron capture: electron from electron orbitals captured to
convert proton to neutron.

E.g. Determine product:
e p n
0
1
1
1
1
0

+
? K + |

0
1
40
19
He ? Ra
4
2
226
88
+

e n p
0
1
1
0
1
1
+
+
e ? Tc
0
1
94
53 +
+
+ +

e N C
0
1
14
7
14
6

n e p
1
0
0
1
1
1
+

? e K +

0
1
40
19
88
John A. Schreifels
Chemistry 212
Chapter 21-8
NUCLEAR STRUCTURE and STABILITY
Shell model of nucleus: protons and neutrons exist in energy
levels which have optimum # of each in each shell.
Magic #: # of nuclear particles in particular shell (similar to
2,8,18 etc. for electrons.)
Protons : 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82
Neutrons: 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82 and 126.
E.g. o-particles ( ) & are doubly magic.
Nuclei with even # of protons and neutrons most stable. (
Largest # of stable isotopes).
Nuclei with odd # of protons and neutrons least stable. (Least #
of stable isotopes).
o
4
2
Pb
208
82
89
John A. Schreifels
Chemistry 212
Chapter 21-9
Band of Stability
Band of stability = stable
isotopes. (above Z = 82: o - or |
- emission.)
above: beta emission;
below: electron or positron
emission

810
John A. Schreifels
Chemistry 212
Chapter 21-10
NUCLEAR BOMBARDMENT (Transmutation)
Bombard nuclei with nuclear particles to convert
element to another one.
Rutherford discovered:

E.g.1. Identify product for electron capture:

E.g.2. Identify products for neutron bombardment of
Fe:

E.g.3 Identify the product of
H O He N
1
1
17
8
4
2
14
7
+ +
? Cu | +

0
1
64
29
e ? n Fe
0
1
58
26
2

+ +
n ? p Ar
1
0
1
1
40
18
+ +
811
John A. Schreifels
Chemistry 212
Chapter 21-11
RATE OF DISINTEGRATION
Rate of disintegration proportional to number of nuclei present.
Rate = kN or

Half-life-time required for half of original nuclei to undergo
decay.
At t
1/2
N = 1/2N
o
and , t
1/2
= 0.693/k or

E.g.1 The half-life of Cobalt-60 is 5.26 years how much of the
original amount would be left after 21.04 years?
E.g.2 Tritium decays by beta emission with a half-life of 12.3
years. How much of the original amount would be left after 30
years?
E.g.3 If a 1.0 g sample of tritium is stored for 5.0 years, what
mass of that isotope remains? k = 0.563/year.
e
kt
=
N
o
N

( )
n
t t .
o
/
e
N
N
2
1
2 1
693 0
= =

812
John A. Schreifels
Chemistry 212
Chapter 21-12
RATE OF DISINTEGRATION2
Dating ancient objects: Carbon-14 is generated naturally from
cosmic rays. .
is unstable with a half-life of 5730 yr.
Rate of disintegration measured and is proportional to the
concentration of
14
C:




E.g. Charcoal from a tree killed by the volcanic eruption that
formed the crater in Crater Lake (in Oregon) gave 7.0
disintegrations of
14
C min.
1
g
1
of total carbon. Present-day
carbon (in living matter) gives 15.3 disintegrations min.
1
g
1
of
total carbon. Determine the date of the volcanic eruption.
H C n N
1
1
14
6
1
0
14
7
+ +
C
14
6
1
2
1
2
1
2
m
m
N k
N k
R
R
N k R
=


=
=
813
John A. Schreifels
Chemistry 212
Chapter 21-13
RADIATION DETECTION
Geiger counters detect
charged particles produced from
interaction of gas with particles
emitted from radioactive
material.
Scintillation counters detect
particles from radioactive
material by measuring intensity
of light when these particles hit
phosphor.
Units: 1 curie (Ci) = 3.7x10
10

disintigrationss
1
814
John A. Schreifels
Chemistry 212
Chapter 21-14
Energy Changes During Nuclear Reactions
Most nuclear reactions give off a large amount of energy.

The energy required to break an nucleus its individual protons and
neutrons is called the binding energy, E
b
.


The total mass changes upon combination of protons and neutrons.
E.g. determine the mass change during the formation of Helium nuclei.



Measured mass of He nuclei (excluding electrons) = 4.00150 amu (Am
= 0.03038 g/mol = called the mass defect).
Energy change calculated from the mass change (decrease) using the
Einstein equation: AE = Amc
2
.
E.g. determine the binding energy for 1 mol He.
E.g. determine the mass change during the combustion of butane
2878 kJ/mol
Protons 21.00728 amu = 2.01456 amu
Neutrons 21.00866 amu = 2.01732 amu
mass of He = 4.03188 amu

+ + He n H
4
2
1
0
1
1
2 2
n p He
1
0
1
1
4
2
2 2 +
815
John A. Schreifels
Chemistry 212
Chapter 21-15
Binding Energies

56
Fe has highest E
b
and is
most stable isotope.
Energy sources:
Fission for large radioactive
elements, such as U-235
Fusion for two deuterium
producing He. Not yet
accomplished.