Chapter 03 - DCC

Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed.
www.imageprocessingbook.com
2002 R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods
Chapter 3
Image Enhancement
in the Spatial Domain
Image Enhancement in the
Spatial Domain
The spatial domain:
The image plane
For a digital image is a Cartesian coordinate system of discrete rows
and columns. At the intersection of each row and column is a pixel.
Each pixel has a value, which we will call intensity.
The frequency domain :
A (2-dimensional) discrete Fourier transform of the spatial domain
We will discuss it in chapter 4.
Enhancement :
To improve the usefulness of an image by using some transformation
on the image.
Often the improvement is to help make the image better looking,
such as increasing the intensity or contrast.
Background
A mathematical representation of spatial
domain enhancement:

where f(x, y): the input image
g(x, y): the processed image
T: an operator on f, defined over some neighborhood of
(x, y)
)] , ( [ ) , ( y x f T y x g =
Gray-level Transformation
Some Basic Gray Level Transformations
Image Negatives
r L s = 1
Let the range of gray level be [0, L-1], then
Log Transformations
) 1 log( r c s + =
where c : constant
0 > r
Power-Law Transformation
cr s =
where c, : positive constants

Example 1: Gamma Correction
4 . 0 =
4 . 0 =
3 . 0 =
6 . 0 =
1 =
0 . 3 =
0 . 5 = 0 . 4 =
1 =
Piecewise-Linear Transformation Functions
Case 1: Contrast Stretching
Case 2:Gray-level Slicing
An image Result of using the transformation in (a)
Case 3:Bit-plane Slicing
Bit-plane slicing:
It can highlight the contribution made to total image appearance by
specific bits.
Each pixel in an image represented by 8 bits.
Image is composed of eight 1-bit planes, ranging from bit-plane 0 for
the least significant bit to bit plane 7 for the most significant bit.
Bit-plane Slicing: A Fractal Image
Bit-plane Slicing: A Fractal Image
2
7 6
4 5 3
1 0
Histogram Processing
Histogram Processing
Histogram Equalization
Histogram equalization:
To improve the contrast of an image
To transform an image in such a way that the transformed image has a
nearly uniform distribution of pixel values
Transformation:
Assume r has been normalized to the interval [0,1], with r = 0
representing black and r = 1 representing white

The transformation function satisfies the following conditions:
T(r) is single-valued and monotonically increasing in the interval

1 0 s s r
1 0 for 1 ) ( 0 s s s s r r T
1 0 ) ( s s = r r T s
For example:
Histogram equalization is based on a transformation of the
probability density function of a random variable.
Let p
r
(r) and p
s
(s) denote the probability density function of
random variable r and s, respectively.
If p
r
(r) and T(r) are known, then the probability density
function p
s
(s) of the transformed variable s can be obtained

Define a transformation function
where w is a dummy variable of integration
and the right side of this equation is the cumulative distribution
function of random variable r.
}
= =
r
r
dw w p r T s
0
) ( ) (
ds
dr
r p s p
r s
) ( ) ( =
Given transformation function T(r),

p
s
(s) now is a uniform probability density function.
T(r) depends on p
r
(r), but the resulting p
s
(s) always is uniform.
1 0 1
) (
1
) ( ) ( ) ( s s = = = s
r p
r p
ds
dr
r p s p
r
r r s
) ( ) (
) (
0
r p dw w p
dr
d
dr
r dT
ds
dr
r
r
r
=
(
= =
}
}
=
r
r
dw w p r T
0
) ( ) (
In discrete version:
The probability of occurrence of gray level r
k
in an image is

n : the total number of pixels in the image
n
k
: the number of pixels that have gray level r
k
L : the total number of possible gray levels in the image
The transformation function is

Thus, an output image is obtained by mapping each pixel with level r
k

in the input image into a corresponding pixel with level s
k
.
1 ,..., 2 , 1 , 0 ) ( ) (
0 0
= = = =

= =
L k
n
n
r p r T s
k
j
k
j
j
j r k k
1 ,..., 2 , 1 , 0 ) ( = = L k
n
n
r p
k
r
Transformation functions (1) through (4) were obtained form the
histograms of the images in Fig 3.17(1), using Eq. (3.3-8).
Histogram Matching
Histogram matching is similar to histogram equalization,
except that instead of trying to make the output image have a
flat histogram, we would like it to have a histogram of a
specified shape, say p
z
(z).
We skip the details of implementation.
Local Enhancement
The histogram processing methods discussed above are global,
in the sense that pixels are modified by a transformation
function based on the gray-level content of an entire image.
However, there are cases in which it is necessary to enhance
details over small areas in an image.
original global local
Use of Histogram Statistics for Image Enhancement
Moments can be determined directly from a histogram much faster than
they can from the pixels directly.
Let r denote a discrete random variable representing discrete gray-levels in
the range [0,L-1], and p(r
i
) denote the normalized histogram component
corresponding to the ith value of r, then the nth moment of r about its mean
is defined as

where m is the mean value of r

For example, the second moment (also the variance of r) is
=
=
1
0
) (
L
i
i i
r p r m
=
=
1
0
2
2
) ( ) ( ) (
L
i
i i
r p m r r
=
=
1
0
) ( ) ( ) (
L
i
i
n
i n
r p m r r
Two uses of the mean and variance for enhancement
purposes:
The global mean and variance (global means for the entire
image) are useful for adjusting overall contrast and
intensity.
The mean and standard deviation for a local region are
useful for correcting for large-scale changes in intensity
and contrast. ( See equations 3.3-21 and 3.3-22.)
Example: Enhancement based on local statistics
Enhancement Using Arithmetic/Logic Operations
Two images of the same size can be combined using
operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
logical AND, OR, XOR and NOT. Such operations are done
on pairs of their corresponding pixels.
Often only one of the images is a real picture while the other is
a machine generated mask. The mask often is a binary image
consisting only of pixel values 0 and 1.
Example: Figure 3.27
Enhancement Using Arithmetic/Logic Operations
AND
OR
Image Subtraction
Example 1
Image Subtraction
Example 2
When subtracting two images, negative pixel values can result.
So, if you want to display the result it may be necessary to
readjust the dynamic range by scaling.
Image Averaging
When taking pictures in reduced lighting (i.e., low
illumination), image noise becomes apparent.
A noisy image g(x,y) can be defined by

where f (x, y): an original image
: the addition of noise
One simple way to reduce this granular noise is to take
several identical pictures and average them, thus
smoothing out the randomness.
) , ( ) , ( ) , ( y x y x f y x g q + =
) , ( y x q
Noise Reduction by Image Averaging
Example: Adding Gaussian Noise
Figure 3.30 (a): An image
of Galaxy Pair NGC3314.
Figure 3.30 (b): Image
corrupted by additive
Gaussian noise with zero
mean and a standard
deviation of 64 gray
levels.
Figure 3.30 (c)-(f):
Results of averaging
K=8,16,64, and 128 noisy
images.
Noise Reduction by Image Averaging
Example: Adding Gaussian Noise
Figure 3.31 (a):
From top to bottom:
Difference images
between Fig. 3.30 (a)
and the four images in
Figs. 3.30 (c) through
(f), respectively.

Figure 3.31 (b):
Corresponding
histogram.
Basics of Spatial Filtering
In spatial filtering (vs. frequency domain filtering), the output image is
computed directly by simple calculations on the pixels of the input image.
Spatial filtering can be either linear or non-linear.
For each output pixel, some neighborhood of input pixels is used in the
computation.
In general, linear filtering of an image f of size MXN with a filter mask of
size mxn is given by

where a=(m-1)/2 and b=(n-1)/2
This concept called convolution. Filter masks are sometimes called
convolution masks or convolution kernels.
= =
+ + =
a
a s
b
b t
t y s x f t s w y x g ) , ( ) , ( ) , (
Nonlinear spatial filtering usually uses a neighborhood too, but
some other mathematical operations are use. These can
include conditional operations (if , then), statistical
(sorting pixel values in the neighborhood), etc.
Because the neighborhood includes pixels on all sides of the
center pixel, some special procedure must be used along the
top, bottom, left and right sides of the image so that the
processing does not try to use pixels that do not exist.
Smoothing Spatial Filters
Smoothing linear filters
Averaging filters (Lowpass filters in Chapter 4))
Box filter
Weighted average filter
Box filter Weighted average
The general implementation for filtering an MXN image with
a weighted averaging filter of size mxn is given by

where a=(m-1)/2 and b=(n-1)/2

= =
= =
+ +
=
a
a s
b
b t
a
a s
b
b t
t s w
t y s x f t s w
y x g
) , (
) , ( ) , (
) , (
Image smoothing with masks of various sizes
Another Example
Order-Statistic Filters
Order-statistic filters
Median filter: to reduce impulse noise (salt-and-
pepper noise)
Sharpening Spatial Filters
Sharpening filters are based on computing spatial
derivatives of an image.
The first-order derivative of a one-dimensional
function f(x) is

The second-order derivative of a one-dimensional
function f(x) is
) ( ) 1 ( x f x f
x
f
+ =
c
c
) ( 2 ) 1 ( ) 1 (
2
2
x f x f x f
x
f
+ + =
c
c
Sharpening Spatial Filters
An Example
Use of Second Derivatives for Enhancement
The Laplacian
Development of the Laplacian method
The two dimensional Laplacian operator for continuous
functions:

The Laplacian is a linear operator.
2
2
2
2
2
y
f
x
f
f
c
c
+
c
c
= V
) , ( 2 ) , 1 ( ) , 1 (
2
2
y x f y x f y x f
x
f
+ + =
c
c
) , ( 2 ) 1 , ( ) 1 , (
2
2
y x f y x f y x f
y
f
+ + =
c
c
) ( 4 )] 1 , ( ) 1 , ( ) , 1 ( ) , 1 ( [
2
x f y x f y x f y x f y x f f + + + + + = V
The Laplacian
The Laplacian
To sharpen an image, the Laplacian of the image is subtracted
from the original image.

Example: Figure 3.40
V +
V
=
positive. is mask Laplacian the of t coefficien center the if ) , (
negative. is mask Laplacian the of t coefficien center the if ) , (
) , (
2
2
f y x f
f y x f
y x g
The Laplacian: Simplifications
The g(x,y) mask
Not only f
2
V
Use of First Derivatives for Enhancement
The Gradient
Development of the Gradient method
The gradient of function f at coordinates (x,y) is defined as
the two-dimensional column vector:

The magnitude of this vector is given by
(
(
(
(
c
c
c
c
=
(
= V
y
f
x
f
G
G
y
x
f
| |
2
1
2
2
2
1
2 2
) ( mag
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
= + = V = V
y
f
x
f
G G f
y x
f
y x
G G f + ~ V
The Gradient
Roberts cross-gradient
operators
Sobel
operators
The Gradient: Using Sobel Operators
Combining Spatial
Enhancement Methods
Combining Spatial
Enhancement Methods

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Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed.

Digital Image Processing, 2nd ed.

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