BIOLOGY

Movement of molecules Transport systems Homeostasis Humans and their environment

Sports Drinks
If water and ions are not replaced, the ion / water balance of the body is disturbed and the cells do not work as efficiently. Sports drinks contain: - Sugars to replace the sugar used in energy release during the activity. - Water and mineral ions to replace the water and ions lost during sweating. Most soft drinks contain water, sugar and ions.

Exchange Surfaces
Gas and solute exchange surfaces in organisms are

adapted maximise effectiveness. The effectiveness of an exchange surface is increased by:

having a large surface area being thin to provide a short diffusion path (in animals) having an efficient blood supply and ventilation to maintain a steep concentration gradient The size and complexity of an organism increases the difficulty of exchanging materials.

Exchange Systems in Plants

Exchange Systems in Plants

In plants:
Carbon dioxide enters leaves by diffusion Most of the water and mineral ions are absorbed by the roots The surface area of the roots is increased by root hairs The surface area of leaves is increased by their long and thin shape

Exchange Systems in Plants

Stomata
Plants have stomata to obtain carbon dioxide from the atmosphere an to remove oxygen produced in photosynthesis. Plants mainly lose water vapour from their leaves, predominantly through the stomata. Evaporation is more rapid in hot, dry, and windy conditions. If plants lose water faster than its replaced by the roots, the stomata can close to prevent wilting.

Transport Systems in Plants

Flowering plants have separate transport systems: Phloem tissue carries dissolved sugars from the leaves to the rest of the plant, including the growing regions and storage organs Xylem tissue transports water and mineral ions, from the roots to the stem and leaves The movement of water from the roots through the xylem and out of the leaves is called the transpiration streams

The Lungs

The Lungs

Gaseous Exchange
The lungs are in the upper part of the body (thorax), protected by the ribcage and separated from the lower part of the body (abdomen) by the diaphragm/ The breathing system takes air into and out of the body so that oxygen from the can diffuse into the bloodstream and carbon dioxide can diffuse out of the bloodstream into the air.

Inhalation

Exhalation

The Lungs The Iron Lung: Negative Breathing Pressure

Artificial Breathing Aids

Positive and Negative Breathing Pressure

Created originally for polio suffers would were paralysed and unable to breath Patients lay in a metallic cylinder which covers their whole body other than their head, with a tight seal around the neck Air is pumped out of the chamber , lowering the pressure inside creating a vacuum like atmosphere This causes the patients chest wall to move up, this increases the volume and decreases the pressure inside the chest The vacuum then switches off automatically meaning air moves back inside the chamber, increasing the pressure The ribs move down, lowering the volume and increasing the pressure inside the chest (Thorax) This forces the air out the lungs

Positive Breathing Pressure

A ventilator forces a carefully measured breath of air into your lungs under a positive pressure Once the lungs have been inflated the air pressure stops The lungs deflate and the ribs move down forcing air out the lungs It can be administered by a simple face masks or a tube going into the trachea In emergency, it is a bag held and squeezed by doctor/nurse

Benefits
Positive pressure aids keep patients alive during major surgery Both can keep paralysed people alive for years Positive pressure aids have been simplified for use at home Positive pressure aids allow movement Positive pressure aids can be operated by hand in an emergency Negative pressure aids are non intrusive Negative pressure aids are more like normal breathing

Body Adaptations for Exchanging Substances

In humans: - the surface area of the lungs is increased by the alveoli - the surface area of the small intestine is increased by villi. The villi provide a: - large surface area, through folds and microvilli - an extensive network of capillaries to absorb the products of digestion by diffusion and active transport. - short diffusion path as microvilli are one cell thick.

The Heart

Blood

Blood is a tissue and consists of a fluid called plasma in which red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets are suspended.

Blood plasma transports: Carbon dioxide from the organs to the lungs Soluble products of digestion from the small intestine to other organs Urea from the liver to the kidneys

Red blood cells transport oxygen from the lungs to the organs. have no nucleus are bioconcave contain a red pigment called haemoglobin
White blood cells have a nucleus form part of the bodys defence system against microorganisms Platelets have no nucleus are small fragments of cells have proteinous threads that help blood to clot

The Heart

Blood

The Heart

Blood

The Heart

Blood

The Heart
The Passage of Blood around the Body

The Heart

The heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood around the body.
Blood enters the atria of the heart. The atria contract and force blood into the ventricles. The ventricles contract and force blood out of the heart Valves in the heart ensure that blood flows in the correct direction. Blood flows from the heart to the organs through arteries and returns through veins. There are two separate circulation systems One for the lungs, and one for all other organs of the body.

There are four main chambers of the heart: Left Atria Right Atria Left Ventricle Right Ventricle

The Heart

The Heart

The Heart
Arteries

Blood Vessels
Capillaries
In the organs, blood flows through very narrow, thin-walled blood vessels called capillaries. Substances needed by the cells in body tissues pass out of the blood through the capillary walls. Substances produced by the cells pass into the blood, through the walls of the capillaries.

Blood is carried through one of three vessels: arteries, veins, or capillaries

Arteries have thick walls containing muscle and elastic fibres. If arteries begin to narrow and restrict blood flow stents are used to keep them open. They carry blood out of the heart and into the lungs. In general, arteries carry oxygenated blood. The exception to this rule is the pulmonary artery, which carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs.

Veins
Veins have thinner walls than arteries and often have valves to prevent back-flow of blood. Valves can be replaced artificially. They carry blood into the heart and out of the lungs. In general, veins carry deoxygenated blood. The exception to this rule is the pulmonary vein, which

carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart.

Temperature Control
Body temperature is monitored and controlled by the thermoregulatory centre in the brain. This centre has receptors sensitive to the temperature of the blood flowing through the brain. Temperature receptors in the skin send impulses to the thermoregulatory centre, giving information about skin temperature.

If the core body temperature is too high: blood vessels supplying the skin capillaries dilate so that more blood flows through the capillaries and more heat is lost sweat glands release more sweat which cools the body as it evaporates. Hair on the skin lies flat to allow hot air to escape

If the core body temperature is too low: blood vessels supplying the skin capillaries constrict to reduce the flow of blood through the capillaries muscles may shiver their contraction needs respiration, which releases some energy to warm the body. Hair stands on end to trap air and insulate the skin

Removal of Waste
Waste products that have to be removed from the body include: Carbon Dioxide: produced by respiration and removed via the lungs when we breathe out Urea: produced in the liver by the breakdown of amino acids and removed by the kidneys in the urine, which is temporarily stored in the bladder.

 If the water or ion content of the body is wrong, too much water may move into or out of the cells and damage them. Water and ions enter the body when we eat and drink, and leave the body through the urine produced by the kidneys.

The Kidneys

People who suffer from kidney failure may be treated either by using a kidney dialysis machine or by having a healthy kidney transplanted.

 Treatment by dialysis restores the concentrations of dissolved substances in the blood to normal levels Dialysis has to be carried out at regular intervals. In a dialysis machine a persons blood flows between partially permeable membranes. The dialysis fluid contains the same concentration of useful substances as the blood. This ensures that glucose and useful mineral ions are not lost. Urea passes out from the blood into the dialysis fluid.

Dialysis

 In kidney transplants a diseased kidney is replaced with a healthy one from a donor. However, the donor kidney may be rejected by the immune system unless precautions are taken. Antigens are proteins on the surface of cells. The recipients antibodies may attack the antigens on the donor organ as they do not recognise them as part of the recipients body. To prevent rejection of the transplanted kidney: - a donor kidney with a tissue-type similar to that of the recipient is used - the recipient is treated with drugs that suppress the immune system.

Kidney Transplants

Sugar Control

The blood glucose concentration of the body is monitored and regulated by the pancreas. The pancreas produces the hormone insulin, which allows the glucose to move from the blood into the cells. A second hormone, glucagon, is produced in the pancreas when blood glucose levels fall. Glucagon causes glycogen to be converted into glucose and be released into the blood.

Diabetes
Diabetes is a disease in which a persons blood glucose concentration may rise to a high level because the pancreas does not produce enough of the hormone insulin.
Type 1 diabetes may be controlled or cured by: - pancreas transplant - transplanting pancreatic cells - injecting artificially harvested insulin. Type 2 diabetes may be controlled by - careful attention to diet - exercise - injecting insulin. Disadvantages Not always available Requires immunosuppressants Hasnt been successful so far

Treatment Pancreas Transplant

Advantages Permanent cure Doesnt require insulin injections Theoretical permanent cure Doesnt need insulin injections Unlimited supply No match needed

Transplanting pancreatic cells

Injecting insulin

Not a permanent cure

Sustainable Water Sources

Humans need water to survive. Many places find themselves landlocked, with no sanitary and reliable water source. For this reason, dams are built. Dams, and the resevoirs they create, supply large populations with a reliable water supply. However, they can cause many problems, including: