Lecture 3 

Data Encoding and Signal Modulation

• Introduction 
• Data Encoding and Signal Modulation 
• Advantages of Signal Modulation 
• Amplitude Modulation
• Amplitude Modulation of Digital Signals 
• Reducing Power and Bandwidth of AM Signals 
• Frequency Modulation 
• Power and Bandwidth of FM Signals 
• Conclusion 
1
 Introduction
A network and transport layers basic services
comprise the end-to-end transport of the bit streams
over a set of routers (switches). They are produced
using six basic mechanisms:
a. Multiplexing
b. Switching
c. Error control
d. flow control
e. congestion control
f. and resource allocation.
2
 Multiplexing
Combines data streams of many such users into
one large bandwidth stream for long duration.
Users can share communication medium.

a. Switch b. Multiplexer/Demultiplexer

a. Fully connected network

b. network with shared links.
3
 Data Encoding is
• the process of preparing data for efficient and accurate transmission.
• Because analog data is altered by noise in transmission, the process
of analog-to-digital conversion allows more accurate transmission of
data. The conversion process will not change the analog data, in
conversion the information contained in the analog data will not be
destroyed by the conversion process. Once the data is in digital
form, it can be encoded as a sequence of voltage levels.

Signal Modulation is
• the process of encoding a baseband source signal Sm (t) onto a carrier
signal.
• The carrier waveform is varied in a manner directly related to the
baseband signal. The carrier can be a sinusoidal signal or a pulse
signal. The result of modulating the carrier signal is called the
modulated signal.
4
 Sampling using PAM.
S(t)

Original Signal

t
S(t)
Ωs   >  2B
Pulse
Amplitude
Modulated

t
Sampling Interval
5
 Signal Modulation
Sc ( t ) = A · cos ( 2π f t+ φ  )

A. Amplitude Modulation (AM), or Amplitude Shift

Keying (ASK): The amplitude A of the carrier signal
changes in direct proportion to the baseband signal.
B. Phase Modulation (PM), or Phase Shift Keying
(PSK): The phase φ of the carrier signal changes in
direct proportion to the baseband signal.
C.  Frequency Modulation (FM), or Frequency Shift
Keying (FSK): The frequency f of the carrier changes
in direct proportion to the baseband signal.
6
 Amplitude, Phase, and Frequency
Modulation of a digital baseband signal
0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0

AM 

0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0

PM 

0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0

FM 
7
 Sm(t) 

dn
An
θ n 
t 
T 2T

 dn dn
0 if t − nT < φ n − or t − nT > φ n +
S m (t ) =  2 2
dn dn
 An if φ n − < t − nT < φ n +
 2 2

Amplitude, duration, and position modulation

using a pulse carrier.
8
 Advantages of Signal Modulation
• FDM
• WDM
• Radio transmission of the signal.
m
3 × 108
1 c s = 3 × 10 5 m
f = 1000 ; λ = =
s f 1
1000
s
Sc ( t ) = A · cos ( 2π fc ) range (fc + f) and (fc - f) .
8 m
3 × 10
1 c s = 30 m
f = 10 × 10 6 ; λ = =
s f 61
10 × 10
s
5GHz  6 cm 9
 FDM
Original Signals Received Signals
Sc1 (t)  Sc1 (t) 

Sm1 (t)  Sm1 (t) 

M DM

Sc2 (t)  Transmission Sc2 (t) 

Line
Sm2 (t)  Sm2 (t) 
M DM

Sc3 (t)  Sc3 (t) 

Sm3 (t)  Sm3 (t) 

M DM

10
 Amplitude Modulation
• AM  is simply the multiplication of the baseband signal 
with the carrier signal. 
S c ( t ) = Ac ⋅ cos ( 2π f c t ) X Sm ( t )

1
S ( t ) = ⋅ [ Ac ⋅ ( S m ( t ) ) ] ⋅ cos ( 2π f c t )
k
[ ]
S ( t ) = k1 ⋅ Ac ⋅ ( DC offset m + S m ( t ) ) ⋅ cos ( 2π f c t )
= k1 ⋅ Ac ⋅ DC offset m ⋅ cos ( 2π f c t ) + k1 ⋅ Ac ⋅ S m (t ) ⋅ cos ( 2π f c t )

•Modulation coefficient  k describes
how efficiently the modulator device multiplies the two signals.
11
 DSBTC AM
• DSBTC AM. DC = Ac .
• Modulation index i of a DSBTC AM signal

i=
max ( S m (t ) )
Ac
(without DC offset)

• The simplest case of DSBTC AM, where the

baseband signal is a sinusoidal signal with:
DC = Ac 

Sm ( t ) = Ac + Am · cos ( 2π fm t) 12
   Am 
S (t ) = 1
k ⋅ Ac ⋅  Ac ⋅  1 + cos ( 2π f m t )   ⋅ cos ( 2π f c t )
  Ac 
Am
i=
Ac
Ac2
S (t ) = ⋅ [ 1 + i ⋅ cos ( 2π f m t ) ] ⋅ cos ( 2π f c t )
k
1
cos ( x ) ⋅ cos ( y ) = [ cos ( x − y ) + cos ( x + y )]
2

Ac2
S (t ) = ⋅ [ 1 + i ⋅ cos ( 2π f m t ) ] ⋅ cos ( 2π f c t )
k
Ac2 Ac2
= ⋅ cos(2π f c t ) + ⋅ i ⋅ cos( 2π f m t ) ⋅ cos( 2π f c t )
k k
2
Ac Ac2 1
= ⋅ cos(2π f c t ) + ⋅ i ⋅ [ cos( 2π ( f c − f m )t ) + cos( 2π ( f c + f m )t )]
k k 2
= Carrier frequency component + Non − carrier frequency component 13
 Power spectrum of DSBTC AM signal
with sinusoidal baseband signal,
 i = 100%, k = 1.
Vrms
Ac2
2
Ac2 Ac2
2· 2 2· 2

f
fc - fm fc f c + fm frequency
14
  S (t)
m

Ac
t
Sc (t)

S(t)

15
S50% (t)

i = 50%

S100% (t)

i = 100%

S150% (t)

i = 150%

16
 DSBSC AM
Sm ( t ) = Ac · cos ( 2π fm t)

S (t ) = Ac ⋅ [ Ac ⋅ cos ( 2π f m t ) ] ⋅ cos ( 2π f c t )

S (t ) = Ac2 ⋅ cos ( 2π f m t ) ⋅ cos ( 2π f c t )

2 1
= Ac ⋅ [ cos( 2π ( f c − f m )t ) + cos( 2π ( f c + f m )t )]
Vrms 2

Ac2 Ac2
2· 2 2· 2

f
fc - fm fc fc + fm frequency
17
Sm (t)

Sc (t)

S(t)

t
18
 Amplitude Modulation of Digital Signals

Baseband Signal

5V ⋅ 4  1 1 
Sm ( t ) =  cos ( 2π f m t ) − cos ( 6π f m t ) + cos ( 10π f m t ) −  
π  3 5 

Carrier Signal
S c ( t ) = 5V ⋅ cos ( 2π f c t )

Baseband Signal with DC shift

5V ⋅ 4  1 1 
S m ( t ) = 5V +  cos ( 2π f m t ) − cos ( 6π f m t ) + cos ( 10π f m t ) −  
π  3 5 

19
 Transmitted Signal
25V 2
S (t ) = cos(2π f c t )
k
carrier frequency
15.92V 2  1 1 
+  cos ( 2π ( f c − f m ) t ) − cos ( 2π ( f c − 3 f m ) t ) + cos ( 2π ( f c − 5 f m ) t ) − ...
k 3 5
lower sideband
15.92V 2  1 1 
+  cos ( 2π ( f c + f m ) t ) − cos ( 2π ( f c + 3 f m ) t ) + cos ( 2π ( f c + 5 f m ) t ) − ...
k 3 5
upper sideband

20
 DSBTC AM signal with
square wave baseband signal, i = 100%,
k = 10.
Vrms
2.50V
2

1.59V 1.59V
2 2

0.53V 0.53V
0.32V 0.32V
2 2
2 2

f
fc - 5fm fc - 3fm fc - f m f c f c + fm fc + 3fm fc + 5fm frequency
21
Sm (t)

5V

t
Sc (t)

S(t)

22
DSBSC AM
5V ⋅ 4  1 1 
S m (t ) =  cos ( 2π f m t ) − cos ( 6π f m t ) + cos ( 10π f m t ) −  
π  3 5 
15.92V 2  1 1 
S (t ) =  cos ( 2π ( f c − f m ) t ) − cos( 2π ( f c − 3 f m ) t ) + cos ( 2π ( f c − 5 f m ) t ) − ...
k 3 5
lower sideband
15.92V 2  1 1 
+  cos( 2π ( f c + f m ) t ) − cos ( 2π ( f c + 3 f m ) t ) + cos ( 2π ( f c + 5 f m ) t ) − ...
k 3 5
upper sideband
Vrms

1.59V 1.59V
2 2

0.53V 0.53V
0.32V 0.32V
2 2
2 2

f 23
fc - 5fm fc - 3fm fc - fm fc fc + fm fc + 3fm fc + 5fm frequency
Sm (t)

Sc (t)

S(t)
180 degree phase shifts 

24
 Binary Phase Shift Keying and
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
25V
S(t ) = ⋅ cos ( 2π f c t + φ ( t ) )
k
 0  if S m ( t ) = − 5V
φ (t ) = 
 180 if S m ( t ) = + 5V

Since the phase of the transmitted signal can take one of 
two values (phase jumping), this type of modulation is 
called binary phase-shift keying (BPSK).  It is a constant-
amplitude method of modulation.
25
If we add together two BPSK signals that are offset by a 90 
degree phase shift, there are four possible phase jumping during 
every sampling period.  Instead of one possible shift of 180º, 
there are three possible transitions:  +90º, 180º, and ‑90º (+270º).  
The signal can be represented by the following formula:

25V
S( t ) = ⋅ cos ( 2π f c t − φ ( t ) )
k
 45 if S m1 ( t ) = − 5V, S m 2 ( t ) = − 5V

 135 if S m1 ( t ) = + 5V, S m 2 ( t ) = − 5V


φ(t ) = 
 225 if S m1 ( t ) = + 5V, S m 2 ( t ) = + 5V


 315 if S ( t ) = − 5V, S ( t ) = + 5V
 m1 m2
26
S1 (t)
0  1 0  1 0 

t
Time domain 
representation of 
S2 (t)
0  1 1 0  0 
QPSK signal, 
created: 
t
by combining BPSK 
signals S1  and S2 .

S(t) phase shifts

180º  90º  180º  -90º 
00  11 01 10 00 

27
 Reducing Power and Bandwidth of AM Signals
• In DSBTC AM, the carrier frequency component carries no
information.
• In all forms of amplitude modulation, the two sidebands contain
identical information.
• Eliminating one of the two sidebands.
• There are four possibilities for transmitting an amplitude
modulated signal
• A. Dual sideband, transmitted carrier (DSBTC AM)
• B. Vestigial sideband
• C. Dual sideband, suppressed carrier (DSBSC AM)
• D. Single sideband
• Selecting the type of transmission can depend on the following
factors:
• Power limitations
• Bandwidth limitations
• Simplicity of Demodulation Equipment
28
• The  power  required  for  transmitting  a  sinusoidal 
baseband signal with DSBTC AM is: 
2 2
1 A 2
 1  Am Ac 
Pt = × c

 +2 ×2 ×2 × 2 
2 
 2   
 i 2

=Pc2 
1 + 2 

 
Pt : Transmitted power,  Ac :Carrier Signal Amplitude
• i : Modulation index
• i=100%,  the  Pt  =1.5  times  the  power  squared  of  the 
carrier  frequency.    Each  sideband  contributes  0.25
times the power of the carrier frequency.
• Vestigial sideband uses only one of the two sidebands of 
the signal.   29
Four possible ways to transmit an AM signal.
Vrms Vrms

f f
fc fc
(a) DSBTC AM (c) DSBSC AM

Gain Vrms
Bandpass Filter Bandpass Filter

f f
fc fc
Vrms Vrms

f f
fc fc 30
(b) Vestigial sideband AM (d) Single sideband AM
 Frequency Modulation
• Additive noise
• Frequency modulation is a special case of phase
modulation, where the phase of the transmitted
signal accumulates  according  to  the  amplitude 
of the baseband signal:
 t

S ( t ) = Ac ⋅ cos  2π f c t +

∫− ∞ k ⋅ S m ( ξ ) dξ 



k : Constructional coefficient of the modulator

31
• To find the maximum possible frequency deviation of an FM
signal, we can assume the baseband signal is a constant voltage of
+Am , then the integral will reduce to a linear function of t :
  k ⋅ Am  
S ( t ) = Ac ⋅ cos ( 2π f c t + k ⋅ Am ⋅ t ) = Ac ⋅ cos  2π ⋅ f c + ⋅t 
  2π  
k ⋅ Am
( ∆ f c ) max = Sm ( t ) = Am  · sin (2π fm )
2π
t t
k ⋅ Am
φ(t ) = ∫
−∞
k ⋅ S m ( ξ )dξ = − k ⋅ Am ∫
0
sin ( 2π f m ξ )dξ =
2π f m
cos ( 2π f m t )

k ⋅ Am
kf =
2π ⋅ f m

[
S ( t ) = Ac ⋅ cos 2π f c t + k f cos ( 2π f m t ) ] 32
• Equation can be expanded using Bessel's trigonometric
identities into a series of phase-shifted sinusoidal terms.
• The amplitude of each term is determined by the Bessel function
of the first kind Jn ( kf ), where kf is the modulation index.
∞

[ ]
cos 2π f c t + k f cos ( 2π f m t ) = ∑ 
J n ( k f ) ⋅ cos  2π t ( f c + n f m ) +
nπ 

n = −∞
 2 

J − n ( x ) = ( − 1) n ⋅ J n ( x )
∞

S (t ) = Ac ⋅ ∑ 
J n ( k f ) ⋅ cos 2π t ( f c + n f m ) + nπ 

n =−∞
 2 

S (t ) = Ac ⋅ J 0 ( k f ) ⋅ cos ( 2π f c t )
∞

+ Ac ⋅ ∑n =1



J n ( k f ) ⋅  cos  2π ⋅ ( f c − n f m ) ⋅ t +

nπ 

2 
 nπ  
+ cos  2π ⋅ ( f c + n f m ) ⋅ t + 33  
 2 
First five Bessel coefficients for varying values of kf .

1.0 
J0 ( kf ) 
0.8 

0.6  J1 ( kf ) 
J2 ( kf ) 
J3 ( kf ) J4 ( kf ) 
0.4  J5 ( kf ) 

0.2 

0  kf
2  4  6  8  10 
­0.2 

­0.4 

34
 Power and Bandwidth of FM Signals
• Calculating the power of an FM signal is much simpler in the
time domain.

1 2  2
∞

∑
Ac2
PFM = = Ac ⋅  j0 ( k f ) + 2 ⋅ jn2 (k f ) 
2 2  
1

BT = 2 ⋅ B ⋅ ( k f + 1 )
In this equation B is effective bandwidth of baseband signal,
but BT is absolute bandwidth of FM signal

35
Ac · cos ( 2π fc + kf cos ( 2π fm ) ) at various values of kf .
Vrms

kf  = 0.5

f
fc  - 3fm  fc fc  + 3fm 
Vrms

kf  = 1

f
fc  - 3fm  fc fc  + 3fm 
Vrms

kf  = 2

f
fc  - 3fm  fc fc  + 3fm 
Vrms

kf  = 10

36
f
fc -9fm  fc -6fm  fc -3fm  fc fc +3fm  fc +6fm  fc +9fm 
 S(t)

Original
Signal

t
S(t)

Quantizing of
sampled
amplitudes

t
S(t)

Recovery of
Original
Signal
37
t
• For instance, we want to use only 8 bits to store each
sample, and the maximum possible value of the analog
signal is 10, then we can quantize the signal into multiples
of 10/256 (0.03906). Each number will be represented as
an 8-bit binary number between 0 and 255. To
approximately reconstruct the original analog signal, each
8-bit sample must be multiplied by 0.03906.

• When sending a digital signal over a transmission line, the

sampling rate of the signal determines the bandwidth 
required for successful transmission.
• Level detection and regeneration of a digital signal allows
the signal to be transmitted with a significantly smaller
bandwidth than the absolute bandwidth of the signal. 38
Conversion from signal voltage to PCM level
in DS1 telephone system.

PCM Signal 

256 

192 

128 

64 

Input Voltage 
0.25·Vmax  0.5·Vmax  0.75·Vmax  Vmax 

39
• The Nyquist criterion determines the
sampling rate necessary to capture all the
information of an analog signal with a
discrete sequence (taken by sampling the
signal at a certain rate).
• “The signal must be sampled at a rate of 
twice the signal bandwidth
Ωs   >  2B
• (Ωs is the sampling frequency, B is
bandwidth of analog signal’s.):
40
 Digital Data Encoding Schemes
• When digital data is transmitted, it must be
mapped to a signal pattern. The signal pattern
should make transmission as reliable as possible.
• In the simplest encoding:
“1” is converted to signal voltage high, and
“0” is converted to signal voltage low.
This is called Non-Return to Zero-Level (NRZ-L)
encoding.
1  0 1  1  0 0 0 1  1  1  0

NRZ-L
41
Bit rate is twice the frequency
• Manchester Encoding, or Biphasic-Level:
0:Signal low (first half) / Signal high (second half)
1:Signal high (first half) / Signal low (second half)

1  0 1  1  0 0 0 1  1  1  0

Manchester 

Bit rate = signal frequency

42