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Chemistry Unit 1
AQA
W Richards

The structure of the atom

The Ancient Greeks used to believe that everything was made up of very small particles. I did some experiments in 1808 that proved this and called these particles ATOMS:

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Dalton

NEUTRON neutral, same mass as proton (1)

PROTON positive, same mass as neutron (1)

ELECTRON negative, mass nearly nothing

Mass and atomic number

Particle Relative Mass

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Relative Charge

Proton
Neutron Electron

1
1 Very small

+1
0 -1

MASS NUMBER = number of protons + number of neutrons

SYMBOL
PROTON NUMBER = number of protons (obviously)

Mass and atomic number

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How many protons, neutrons and electrons?

Electron structure
Consider an atom of Potassium:

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Potassium has 19 electrons. These electrons occupy specific energy levels shells The inner shell has __ electrons The next shell has __ electrons The next shell has __ electrons

Nucleus

Electron structure

The next shell has the remaining __ electron

= 2,8,8,1

Draw the electronic structure of the following atoms:

Electron structure

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Nucleus

Nucleus

Nucleus

Electron structure = 2,5

Electron structure

Electron structure

= 2,8,2

= 2,8,8,2

Periodic Table Introduction

How would you arrange these elements into groups?

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Periodic table
The periodic table arranges all the elements in groups according to their properties. Vertical columns are called GROUPS

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Mendeleev

Horizontal rows are called PERIODS

The Periodic Table

Fact 1: Elements in the same group have the same number of electrons in the outer shell (this corresponds to their group number)
H Li Na K Be Mg Ca Fe Ni Cu Ag Pt Au Hg Zn B Al C Si N P

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He O S F Cl Br I Ne Ar Kr Xe

E.g. all group 1 metals have __ electron in their outer shell

These elements have __ electrons in their outer shells

These elements have __ electrons in their outer shell

The Periodic Table

Fact 2: As you move down through the periods an extra electron shell is added:
E.g. Lithium has 3 electron H in the configuration 2,1

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He B Al C Si N P O S F Cl Br I Hg Ne Ar Kr Xe

Li Na K

Be Mg Ca

Ni Sodium hasFe 11 electrons in the configuration 2,8,1 Pt

Cu Ag Au

Zn

Potassium has 19 electrons in the configuration __,__,__,__

The Periodic Table

Fact 3: Most of the elements are metals:

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H Li Na K Be Mg Ca

These elements are metals

B Al Fe Ni Cu Ag Pt Au Hg Zn C Si N P O S F Cl Br I

He Ne Ar Kr Xe

This line divides metals from nonmetals

These elements are non-metals

The Periodic Table

Fact 4: (Most important) All of the elements in the same group have similar PROPERTIES. This is how I thought of the periodic table in the first place. This is called PERIODICITY.
H Li Na K Be Mg Ca Fe Ni Cu Ag Zn B Al C Si N P

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He O S F Cl Br I Ne Ar Kr Xe

Pt Au 1 Hg E.g. consider the group metals. They all:

1) Are soft

2) Can be easily cut with a knife

3) React with water

Group 1 The alkali metals

Li Na K Rb Cs Fr
Watch video of these metals reacting with water (from Sky Ones Brainiac)

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Group 0 The Noble gases

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He Ne Ar
Questions:

Kr Xe Rn

1) How many electrons do these elements have in their outer shell?

2) How does this affect their reactivity?

Compounds
Compounds are formed when two or more elements are chemically combined by sharing or giving of electrons. Some examples:

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Methane Sodium chloride (salt)

Glucose

Some simple compounds

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Methane, CH4

Water, H2O

Carbon dioxide, CO2

Key
Hydrogen Ethyne, C2H2 Oxygen sulfuric acid, H2SO4 Carbon sulfur

Bonding introduced
Cl
Hi. My names Johnny Chlorine. Im in Group 7, so I have 7 electrons in my outer shell

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Id quite like to have a full outer shell. To do this I need to GAIN an electron. Who can help me?

Cl

Bonding
Cl

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Here comes one of my friends, Harry Hydrogen

Hey Johnny. Ive only got one electron but its really close to my nucleus so I dont want to lose it. Fancy sharing?

Cl

H Now were both really stable. Weve formed a covalent bond.

Bonding
Cl Here comes another friend, Sophie Sodium Hey Johnny. Im in Group 1 so I have one electron in my outer shell. Unlike Harry, this electron is far away from the nucleus so Im quite happy to get rid of it. Do you want it?

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Na

Okay

Cl Na

Now weve both got full outer shells and weve both gained a charge. Were both called IONS and weve formed an IONIC bond.

Balancing equations
Consider the following reaction: Sodium + water

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sodium hydroxide + hydrogen

Na

Na

This equation doesnt balance there are 2 hydrogen atoms on the left hand side (the reactants and 3 on the right hand side (the products)

Balancing equations
We need to balance the equation: Sodium + water

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sodium hydroxide + hydrogen

Na

O Na

H
+
O

H
H

O
Na O

H + H H H

Na

Now the equation is balanced, and we can write it as: 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

Some examples
2Mg
Zn 2 Fe

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O2

2 MgO
ZnCl2 2 FeCl3 + H2

+ 2 HCl + 3Cl2

NaOH
CH4 Ca 2 NaOH + 2 CH3OH

HCl

NaCl
CO2

H2O
+ H2

+ 2 O2 + 2 H2O H2SO4 + 3 O2

+ 2H2O + 2H2O

Ca(OH)2 Na2SO4 2 CO2

+ 4H2O

Conservation of mass in reactions

In any reaction the total mass of products is the same as the total mass of the reactants

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Example 1 Magnesium oxide and hydrochloric acid

H Mg

Cl Cl Cl Mg Cl H

1 x magnesium, 1 x oxygen, 2 x hydrogen and 2 x chlorine atoms

Also 1 x magnesium, 1 x oxygen, 2 x hydrogen and 2 x chlorine atoms

Example 2 Burning methane

H H C H H
O O O O O

H H

O O

H H

Limestone
Limestone is a rock made up of mainly calcium carbonate. Its cheap and easy to obtain. Some uses:
1) Building materials limestone can be ______ and cut into blocks to be used in _______. However, it is badly affected by ____ ____.

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View video of limestone being quarried 2) Cement making limestone can be roasted in a rotary kiln to produce dry cement. Its then mixed with sand and _____ to make _______. Words building, quarried, gravel, concrete, acid rain

Limestone

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If soil is too _____ crops will fail. Limestone can also be used as a neutralising agent. There are two reactions to know: 1) Firstly, a THERMAL _________________ reaction is used to break the calcium carbonate down into calcium oxide and _______ __________:
Calcium carbonate
HEAT

calcium oxide + carbon dioxide

2) This is then slaked with water to produce calcium hydroxide:

Calcium oxide
WATER

calcium hydroxide

Calcium hydroxide is alkaline and is used to ______ acidic soil. Words acidic, neutralise, decomposition, carbon dioxide

The Limestone Cycle

Step 4: add CO2
Calcium Carbonate CO2 (limestone) Step 1: heat

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Calcium Hydroxide solution

Calcium Oxide

Step 3: add more water and filter

Calcium Hydroxide

Step 2: add a little water

Thermal decomposition of carbonates

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Limestone undergoes thermal decomposition when heated. The same happens to other carbonates. For example, consider copper carbonate:

Copper carbonate (green) turns into copper oxide (black)

Limewater

Limewater goes cloudy due to carbon dioxide being made

Copper carbonate copper oxide + carbon dioxide

The Periodic Table

Recall something we said earlier some of the elements are metals:

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H Li Na K Be Mg Ca

These elements are metals

B Al Fe Ni Cu Ag Pt Au Hg Zn C Si N P O S F Cl Br I

He Ne Ar Kr Xe

This line divides metals from nonmetals

These elements are non-metals

Properties of metals

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Metals have very high melting points (which means that they are usually _____) whereas non-metals will melt at lower ___________ All metals conduct heat and __________ very well, whereas non-metals dont (usually)

Metals are strong and ______ but bendable. Non-metals are usually _____ or they will snap.
Metals will _____ when freshly cut or scratched, whereas non-metals are usually dull. Metals have higher _______ than non-metals (i.e. they weigh more) Metals can be used to make ______ (a mixture of different metals)

Words - alloys, electricity, solids, weak, densities, temperatures, tough, shine

Extracting Metals
Some definitions:
A METAL ORE is a mineral or mixture of minerals from which it is economically viable to extract some metal.

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Most ores contain METAL OXIDES (e.g. rust = iron oxide).

To extract a metal from a metal oxide we need to REDUCE the oxygen. This is called a REDUCTION reaction. To put it simply:

Iron ore

Iron

Oxide

Reduce the oxygen to make iron

How do we do it?
Potassium Sodium Calcium Magnesium Aluminium

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Metals ABOVE CARBON, because of their high reactivity, are extracted by ELECTROLYSIS, which is very expensive! Metals BELOW CARBON are extracted by heating them with carbon in a BLAST FURNACE. This is a displacement reaction

Carbon
Zinc Iron Tin Lead

Carbon

Iron Oxide

Copper
Silver Gold Platinum

These LOW REACTIVITY metals wont need to be extracted because they are SO unreactive youll find them on their own, not in a metal oxide

Extracting metals
1) What is an ore?
3) How do you get a metal out of a metal oxide?

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2) In what form are metals usually found in the Earth?

4) What is this type of reaction called?

Type of metal Extraction process Examples

High reactivity (i.e anything above carbon) Middle reactivity (i.e. anything below carbon)
Low reactivity

The Transition Metals

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Some facts

1) This section includes metals like gold, mercury, iron, copper 2) They are all ______ and solid (except _________)
3) They are ____ reactive than the alkali metals 4) They can form __________ compounds, usually _______

5) They can be used as a ______ (a chemical that speeds up a reaction)

Words hard, coloured, mercury, less, catalyst, insoluble

Copper, Aluminium and Titanium

Metal Uses and why Extraction method Problems

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Copper

Electrical wires good conductor

Electrolysis

Limited supply

Aluminium and titanium

Planes light and corrrosion resistant

Complicated and expensive

Expensive and difficult to extract

Supplies of any raw material are limited so what are the options?

Using Iron

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Iron produced by the blast furnace (cast iron) contains about 96% iron and 4% impurities. These impurities make it very brittle and easy to break.

Ironbridge, Shropshire made out of cast iron and safe for horses and carts but not modern vehicles.

Using Iron
In pure iron all impurities are removed. This makes the iron soft:

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Adding 1% impurities makes the iron much stronger:

Making steel
Strong

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Strength

Hardness Weak
0.5% 1% 1.5% Amount of carbon added (%)

Steel with a low carbon content is easily shaped

Steel with a high carbon content is strong but brittle

Steel with chromium and nickel is called stainless steel

Alloys

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Steel is an alloy i.e. a mixture of metals. Here are other alloys:

Gold mixed with copper

Aluminium mixed with magnesium and copper

Aluminiun mixed with chromium

Electrolysis

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Positive electrode Solution containing copper and chloride ions

+ + + +

Cu2+ ClCu2+

Cl-

Negative electrode

Cl-

Cu2+

Electrolysis

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Electrolysis is used to separate a metal from its compound.

When we electrolysed copper chloride the _____ chloride ions moved to the ______ electrode and the ______ copper ions moved to the ______ electrode OPPOSITES ATTRACT!!!

= chloride ion = copper ion

Extracting and purifying copper

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Copper can be extracted from copper-rich ores by heating the ores in a furnace and then purifying it by electrolysis.

Extracting copper uses large amounts of heat and energy

Bingham Canyon copper mine in Utah, one of the largest in the world

Purifying Copper by electrolysis

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Impure copper Solution containing copper ions

+ + Cu + Cu + Cu

2+ 2+ 2+

Pure copper

New ways of extracting copper

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Phytomining growing _____ that absorb metals and then ______ them to extract the metal from __.

Mining lower-grade ____

Bioleaching using ______ to produce leachate solutions that contain metal _________. Words compounds, plants, ores, bacteria, burning, ash

Extracting Aluminium

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Aluminium has to be extracted from its ore by electrolysis. This is because aluminium is very ___________ and so it cannot be extracted using ______. The amount of energy and _____ required to extract aluminium and other metals is very high and so ________ is a much better option.
Words reactive, recycling, money, carbon

Extracting metals from soil

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Where metals have contaminated land (e.g. brown field sites), plants such as brassica can be used to extract the metals back out of the soil and the metals can then be recovered from the plants.

Crude Oil

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Hydrocarbons and crude oil

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Crude oil is a mixture of HYDROCARBONS (compounds made up of carbon and hydrogen). Some examples:
H H H

C
H

C
H

Longer chains mean

1. Less ability to flow 2. Less flammable 3. Less volatile 4. Higher boiling point

Increasing length

Ethane
H H H

C
H

C
H

C
H

C
H

Butane

Distillation revision

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This apparatus can be used to separate water and ink because they have different _____ ______. The ______ will evaporate first, turn back into a _______ in the condenser and collect in the _______. The ink remains in the round flask, as long as the _______ does not exceed inks boiling point. This method can be used to separate crude oil.

Words temperature, boiling points, water, beaker, liquid

Crude oil can be separated by fractional distillation. The oil is evaporated and the hydrocarbon chains of different lengths condense at different temperatures:
Fractions with low boiling points condense at the top

Fractional distillation

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Fractions with high boiling points condense at the bottom

Alkanes are SATURATED HYDROCARBONS. What does this mean?

Alkanes

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HYDROCARBONS are molecules that are made up of hydrogen and carbon atoms SATURATED means that all of these atoms are held together by single COVALENT bonds, for example:
H H H H H H H H H

C
H

C
H

C
H

C
H

C
H

C
H

Ethane

Butane

Alkanes are fairly unreactive (but they do burn well). The general formula for an alkane is CnH2n+2

General Formulae for Alkanes

Instead of circles, lets use letters
H H H H H H

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C
H

C
H

C
H

Methane (n=1)
H H H H

Ethane (n=2)
H H H H H H

C
H

C
H

C
H

C
H

C
H

C
H

C
H

Propane (n=3)

Butane (n=4)

General formula for alkanes = CnH2n+2

Burning Fossil Fuels

Oil contains carbon:
H H C H
O O O O O O

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Burning fossil fuels like oil and coal causes pollution.

H H
O O

H H

Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas it helps cause global warming Coal contains carbon, sulfur and other particles:

sulfur + oxygen

sulfur dioxide

Sulfur dioxide causes acid rain. Other particles can cause global dimming sunlight is absorbed by the particles in the atmosphere.

Removing Sulfur

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Sulfur dioxide is clearly bad for the environment so its a good idea to remove as much sulfur as possible: Vehicles can remove sulfur from fuels before they are burned.

Power stations can remove sulfur dioxide from waste gases after combustion.

Other fuel sources

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Task: Identify two other fuel sources (biofuels) currently being developed and find out the following:

1) What is the source called and what is it made of?

2) Why is the fuel better than coal? 3) What are the disadvantages of this fuel?

Using Crude Oil

Benefits
Cheap to extract Wide range of uses as fuel

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Drawbacks
Plastics dont biodegrade

Crude Oil

Burning fossil fuels causes pollution Disposal of materials uses up land fill sites

Used to make plastics

Its going to run out

Disposal of plastics

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1) Landfill sites - most plastics do not _________ which means that landfill sites are quickly filled up. Research is being carried out on __________ plastics.

2) Burning this releases carbon dioxide which causes the ________ effect, as well as other ________ gases.
3) _______ the best option, but difficult because of the different types of plastic Words recycling, greenhouse, decompose, biodegradable, poisonous

Ethanol
Ethanol is an important chemical. Many countries are increasing the amount of ethanol put into their petrol supplies:

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Ethanol is a clean burning energy source and produces little or no greenhouse gases. How is it made and what are the advantages and disadvanatges of each method?
The fossil fuel way Ethene + steam ethanol Ethene is produced by cracking oil

Ford Escape E85 runs on 85% ethanol

The renewable way

Sugar

Sugar is produced from standard crops like ethanol + carbon dioxide sugar cane and corn

Making ethanol from ethene

Ethene + water C2H + H20 ethanol C2H5OH

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Unused ethene recycled

Ethene

Reaction vessel with high temperature and pressure and a catalyst

Ethanol

Shorter chain hydrocarbons are in greater demand because they burn easier. They can be made from long chain hydrocarbons by cracking:

Cracking

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Butane Ethane For example, this bond can be cracked to give these: Ethene

Cracking
Long chain hydrocarbon Heated catalyst Liquid hydrocarbon

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Gaseous hydrocarbon

This is a THERMAL DECOMPOSITION reaction, with clay used as a catalyst Cracking is used to produce plastics such as polymers and polyethanes. The waste products from this reaction include carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide and water vapour. There are three main environmental problems here: 1) Carbon dioxide causes the _________ effect 2) Sulfur dioxide causes _____ _____ 3) Plastics are not _____________

Alkenes are different to alkanes; they contain DOUBLE COVALENT bonds. For example:

Alkenes

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ALKANES

ALKENES

Ethane

Ethene

Butane

Butene

This double bond means that alkenes have the potential to join with other molecules this make them REACTIVE. Alkenes turn bromine water colourless.

Testing for alkenes

Bromine water

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Oil

Bromine goes colourless

General Formulae for Alkenes

H H H

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Ethene (n=2)
H H H H H H H H H H

C
H

C
H

C
H

Propene (n=3)

Butene (n=4)

General formula for alkenes = CnH2n

Monomers and Polymers

H
H

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C
H

C
H

Ethene

Heres ethene again. Ethene is called a MONOMER because it is just one small molecule. We can use ethene to make plastics

Step 1: Break the double bond Step 2: Add the molecules together:

This molecule is called POLYETHENE, and the process that made it is called POLYMERISATION

Another way of drawing it

Instead of circles, lets use letters
H H H H H H H H

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C
H

C
H H

C
H

C
H

C
H

C
H

C
H

Ethene

Ethene

Poly(e)thene

General formula for addition polymerisation: n

C
H

C
CH3

C
H

C
n
CH3

e.g.

C
H

C
H

C
H

C
H

Some examples
H H

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C
H

C
H

C
H

C
H

C
Cl

C
H

C
Cl

C
H

Cl

Cl

C
Br

C
H

C
Br

C
H

Uses of addition polymers

Poly(ethene) Poly(propene)

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Poly(styrene)

Poly(chloroethene), PVC

Biodegradable carrier bags

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This carrier bag has been made with flax fibre from industrial waste.

Measuring Energy in Food

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The energy content in foods is measured in Joules and calories

Foods with large carbohydrate and fat contents have lots of energy, but too much energy and too little exercise could lead to obesity.

Vegetable Oils

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When plants photosynthesise they produce glucose. They can also produce vegetable oils and we can use these for food and fuel:

Use of oil Oily foods

Benefits

Drawbacks

Fuel

Extracting Oil
Step 1: Crush the plant

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Step 2: Remove oil by pressing

OR step 3: Remove oil by distillation

Why use oil for cooking?

1) Why do we use oil for cooking and not just water?

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2) What are the problems associated with using oil in cooking?

Healthy and Unhealthy Oils

Unhealthy oils: Saturated

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Healthy oils:

Unsaturated

Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fats

Some oils are more healthy than others. Fish oils contain the nutrients Omega-3 and Omega6. These oils are unsaturated like ethene:
H H

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C
H

C
H

Ethene Bromine water

Testing for double bonds:

Clearly, it is important for scientists to be able to test if a food contains healthy unsaturated fats or unhealthy saturated fats. Heres how its done:
Oil (in ethanol) Bromine goes colourless

Turning unsaturates into saturates

600C, Nickel catalyst The unsaturated fat is hardened by hydrogenation. Hydrogenated oils have a higher melting point and so are solid at room temperature, making them useful for spreads and pastries.

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Emulsions
Whats an emulsion? Its a mixture of oil and water, like in salad dressing Paint is an emulsion. Other examples: Milk Cream

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Butterfat
Watery liquid Butter

Why use emulsions?

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Emulsions can have varying textures and this makes them useful. Some examples: Different thicknesses of cream

Paint and mayonnaise

Emulsifiers
An emulsifier is an additive that will stop oil and water from seperating, like in mayonnaise. How they work:

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I dont want to mix with you!

Im an emulsifier Ill sort this out with my hydrophobic end and my hydrophilic end!

Water

Oil

The water and oil drops become coated and insulated from one another, which prevents them from seperating.

Uses of emulsifiers in food

Emulsifiers are used:

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1) In bread, to stop large _____ developing when it bakes 2) In low fat spreads, to allow the oil and water to be _____ 3) In ice cream and spray cream, to ______ the foam 4) In sponge cakes, to make tiny pockets of ____ 5) In chocolate, to stop melted chocolate forming _______

Words crystals, air, holes, mixed, stabilise

The Structure of the Earth

A thin crust 10-100km thick

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A mantle has the properties of a solid but it can also flow A core made of molten nickel and iron. Outer part is liquid and inner part is solid

The average density of the Earth is much higher than the crust, so the inner core must be very dense

The Earths LITHOSPHERE (i.e. the _______) is split up into different sections called ________ plates:

Movement of the Lithosphere

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These plates are moving apart from each other a few centimetres every _______ due to the ________ currents in the mantle caused by the ________ decay of rocks inside the core.

Words radioactive, crust, convection, tectonic, year

Plate Movements

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Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions can be common here

Oceanic Crust Mantle

Convection Currents

Magma

The Earths Atmosphere

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For the last 200 million years the atmosphere has remained roughly the same it contains 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% noble gases and about 0.03% CO2
Carbon dioxide, water vapour Oxygen Nitrogen Noble gases

Evolution of the Earths Atmosphere

Carbon dioxide Methane Ammonia Oxygen Nitrogen

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Others

Present day atmosphere contains 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% noble gases and about 0.03% CO2

4 Billion years

3 Billion years

2 Billion years

1 Billion years

Present day

Evolution of the Earths Atmosphere

Volcanic activity releases CO2, methane, ammonia and water vapour into the atmosphere. The water vapour condenses to form oceans.

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Some of the oxygen is converted into ozone. The ozone layer blocks out harmful ultra-violet rays which allows for the development of new life.

4 Billion years

3 Billion years

2 Billion years

1 Billion years

Present day

Green plants evolve which take in CO2 and give out oxygen. Carbon from CO2 becomes locked up in sedimentary rocks as carbonates and fossil fuels. Methane and ammonia react with the oxygen and nitrogen is released.

The Primordial Soup theory:

One theory about how life was formed

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A collection of simple molecules like methane

Amino acids

Dr Stanley Miller 19302007

In 1953 I conducted an experiment that proved that an electrical discharge can turn methane into amino acids! This is called the Miller-Urey experiment.

The amount of CO2 in the atmosphere is affected by 3 things:

1) Geological activity moves carbonate rocks deep into the Earth and they release ______ _______ into the atmosphere during volcanic activity.

Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

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2) When fossil fuels are burned the carbon contained in them reacts with _____ to form CO2. 3) Increased CO2 in the atmosphere causes a reaction between it and _______. These reactions do not remove ALL of the new CO2 so the greenhouse effect is still getting _______!

Words oxygen, seawater, carbon dioxide, worse

Separating air
Remove CO2 and H2O vapour

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Air can be separated into the different gases that make it up. To do this you first have to cool air down to -2000C and turn it into a liquid:

Nitrogen

Liquid air
(-200OC)

Fractional distillation

Argon
Oxygen

In this chamber the air is gradually heated up again and the different parts of air distil off at different temperatures according to their boiling points