Contents/ Pedagogy / Cases

1-Overview of the nature and significance of environmental issues and trends Global and regional issues, multilateral environmental agreements 2-Fundamentals of Environmental, health and safety Identification of potential safety and health hazards in industrial and development projects, reduction strategies, policies and legislation, international and national perspective, safety standards and management systems, ISO 14000, ISO 18000. 3-Environmental Law in India, legal aspects for managing the environment and National Environmental Policy 4-Environmental Impact assessment and environmental clearance

5-Carbon Credits Market Global climate change and Kyoto Protocol, Clean Development Mechanism, Carbon credits business process: Emerging Opportunities, Biomass Energy, Status and future of Carbon markets.

Environmental issues: nature and significance trends

Environment: Environment is the sum total of water, air and land and the interrelationships among them along with human beings, other living organisms and property. It includes all the physical and biological surrounding and their interactions. Environmental Studies provide a systematic approach towards understanding the environment of our planet and the impact of human life upon the environment. Environment is actually global in nature, it is a multidisciplinary subject including physics, geology, geography, history, economics, physiology, biotechnology, remote sensing, geophysics, soil science and hydrology etc.

Types of Environment and forces which impact it.

Biological Social Physical Geographical Man made-landfills, transport network, telecom network, space network, sewage systems etc Pollution Business

Natural phenomenon and Human Activity

Importance of understanding Environment

Environment belongs to all the living beings so is, important to all. Environmental issues like global warming, depletion of ozone layer, dwindling forest, energy resources, loss of global biodiversity etc affect every creature, present and future. Environment Study deals with the analysis of the processes in water, air, land, soil and organisms which leads to pollute or degrade environment. It helps us for establishing standard, for safe, clean and healthy natural ecosystem. It also deals with issues like safe and clean drinking water, hygienic living conditions and clean and fresh air, fertility of land, healthy food and development. Sustainable environmental law, business administration, environmental protection, management and environmental engineering are immerging opportunities for environment protection and management.

Human Activities and their Affects on Environment

Agriculture(i) Mechanical factors: Tractors, tube wells and agricultural equipments. Mechanization has increased agricultural produce. Helps in ploughing, leveling, weed controlling and sowing etc. (ii) Chemical factors: Fertilizers and pesticides are used in abundance. They are easy to handle, transport and store and helps in better crop yield. Their increasing use pollutes the environment and contaminates the surface and ground water resources. In the long run, it reduces the fertility of land and also leads to loss of organic matter from the soil. It also affects the lakes, ponds and underground water due to the accumulation of fertilizers in them and the soil causing Eutropication and Algal Blooms.

Industries
They cause:(i) Ecosystem imbalance (ii) Biodiversity loss (iii) Toxic metal and non-metal discharge (iv) Food chain imbalance (v) Disturbance of self purification mechanism (vi) Gaseous emissions Control Measures 1. Scientific techniques should be adopted for the reprocessing of the industrial waste. Instead of Cradle to Grave- we need to move to Cradle to Cradle concept. 2. Recycling practices should be made mandatory in all industrial plants. 3. Reasonable funds should be provided for the construction of treatment plants for industrial effluents. 4. Legal provisions should be enforced by proper administration. 5. Appropriate Technology should be used to manufacture goods and services.

 Major effects 1. Mining produces enormous quantities of waste compared to any other natural resource extraction activity. Water dissolves these wastes to produce contaminated fluid that pollute soil, river and ground water. 2. Mining also leads to air pollution due to release of green house gases and other toxic gases, for example CH4, CO2 etc. 3. It leads to deforestation including loss of flora and fauna. 4. Mining operations produce a lot of noise. The deafening sound of machinery used in mining and the blasting create conditions that may become unbearable to local people and the forest wild life. 5. It leads to migration of tribal people from mining areas to other areas in search of land and food. 6. Mining results in lowering of ground water table. 7. Formation of ponds which can alter the hydraulic gradient and drainage basin limits in local regions.

Mining

Transportation
A) Road Transport Various pollutants that emit from automobiles: 1. CO2/CO: It is emit from automobiles. Its concentration during 1990s was 1.5 ppm. Carbon monoxide reacts with haemoglobin of the blood to form carboxyhaemoglobin and minimizes the oxygen carrying capacity of blood. The symptoms are headache, fatigue, tiredness, unconsciousness and cardiovascular damage. 2. Nitrogen oxides (NO2): It is toxic at the highest rate, attacks the lungs and it also reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of blood. It causes many diseases like lung cancer and Asthma. It occurs due to the breakdown of the air sacs in the lungs. It harms even the plant lives by reducing plant growth, its productivity and its yield at a high rate. 3. Hydrocarbons: It causes lung and skin cancer as it is carcinogenic. B) Sea Transport It consists of ships and submarines etc. that covers the distance between countries. Sometimes, due to storms and icebergs, accidents take place due to which oil spills into the ocean. This floating oil is absorbed and consumed by billions of tiny phytoplankton and other organisms, since these organisms play a vital role in the food chain, and other forms of marine life depend upon them, they, eventually pass this oil to the other organisms as well via food chain.

 c) Air Transportation
It is one of the fastest modes of transportation and pollution too. Various pollutants such as CO, CO2, oxides of nitrogen and oxides of sulphur are spread in the atmosphere through airplanes. Jet planes travel in the stratosphere and disrupt the Ozone layer by emitting pollutions such as SO4, and Cl2 etc. Airplanes create supersonic booms which harms people physiologically and psychologically. Measures to reduce impact (a) Reduction of lead content in motor fuel. (b) Global Common Regulation for traffic movements. (c) Improvement in the processes of automobile technology. (d) Improvement in the traffic system and conditions of roads. (e) Restriction in the growth of urban centers, industries and commercial centers. ( f ) Implementation of emission norms for new and in use vehicles. (g) Use of unadulterated fuel. (h) Keeping a check on evaporative emission form storage tanks, fuel distribution system and vehicles. (i) Improvement in fuel quality and usage of cleaner fuel.

Resettlement and Rehabilitation of People

Social Problems 1. Disturbances in the social structure 2. Breakage of community structures. 3. Weakening of traditions. 4. Loss of cultural identity. 5. Inter-relationship and potential for mutual fraternity is diminished. Economical Problems 1. Income sources are shattered and ruined. 2. Families face long-term hardships. 3. Search of new jobs requires time. Educational, Psychological and Environmental a. Education of children gets interrupted. b. Joint families are separated which affects different members of the family, differently. c. Resettlement in the newer environment affects the mental and physical skill of the individual. d. People face greater problems of availing recourses due to competition in the relocated Environment.

Housing
Housing involves dwellings of living beings in the form of group housing, office buildings, multi-storeyed buildings, shopping malls, industrial township etc. Various sources of pollution generated in housing activities are: Indoor Sources of Pollutants (a) Air conditioner provides good temperature for fungal and other bacterial growth. (b) Fumes generated from kitchen appliances such as gas stove, cooker, heater, blower, oven causes air pollution. (c) Other appliances such as T.V., radio, fan, cooler etc. cause noise pollution. (d) Materials used for decoration such as varnishes, paints, coated wall papers etc create air pollution. Outdoor Sources of Pollutants (a) Building construction material such as cement, sand, steel, gravel, marbles, aluminium etc cause water and soil pollution. (b) Shops producing ozone from photocopier machine, tobacco smoke, freon using as solvent in industries causes air pollution.

Wastes
All Human activities result in production of wastes. Waste Management is an outcome of Consumerism. It refers to the consumption of resources by the people. Industrialization and extensive marketing strategies have resulted in consumerism . Consumerism has arisen due to the increase in population size and due to demand by this population, as our life style is dynamic and changing. In the modern era, our needs have multiplied so consumerism of resources has also increased. More consumption leads to more waste generation and more waste generation to pollution in the environment. Waste Accumulation is a growing problem. India alone is losing $ 2 billion per annum due problems related to WA.

Global and regional Environmental issues

1. Ozone Depletion/ Global warming and Climate Change Ozone layer acts as a shield scattered in the stratosphere. It absorbs the suns UV radiation and keeps it away from the earths surface. Its depletion is a cause of global concern as its thinning will let the lethal UV rays pass and reach to the earths surface which will result into cancer, eye damage and even will reduce our immunity. Ozone hole is usually measured as reduction in the total column above a point on the earths surface, which is normally expressed in Dobson units. Substantial reductions up to 70% have been observed in the ozone column over Antarctica. Sea level rise, and an increase in the frequency and severity of some extreme weather events. Acidification of Sea Water. Volcanism Earthquakes. Oxygen Depletion Food Insecurity. Diseases

2. Deforestation
Deforestation refers to the loss or destruction of naturally occurring forests, primarily due to human activities such as logging, cutting trees for fuel, slash-andburn agriculture, clearing land for livestock grazing, mining operations, oil extraction, dam building, and urban sprawl or other types of development and population expansion. Logging alonemuch of it illegalaccounts for the loss of more than 32 million acres of our planet's natural forests every year. Approximately 7.3 million hectares of forests are permanently lost every year. Scientists estimate that 80 percent of all species on Earthincluding those not yet discoveredlive in tropical rainforests. Deforestation in those regions wipes out critical habitat, disrupts ecosystems and leads to the potential extinction of many species, including irreplaceable species that could be used to make medicines, which might be essential for cures or effective treatments of the world's most devastating diseases. Deforestation and damage to other environmental systems could cut living standards for the world's poor by half and reduce the global gross domestic product (GDP) by about 7 percent.

3. Desertification
The deserts in the world should occupy about 48 million sq. km (including the ice deserts). But today the area of deserts reaches 57 million sq. km. The difference of 9 million sq. km represents the man-made deserts. In addition, about 25 million sq. km more is the area of less severe desertification. India has total land area of about 328 million hectares out of which 24% is wasteland area. The transformation of land once suitable for agriculture into desert. Desertification can result from climate change or from human practices such as deforestation and overgrazing. The world economic losses due to the desertification are estimated at US$ 42 billion per annum.

Remedies.
Salt traps, which involve the creation of so-called void layers of gravel and sand at certain depths in the soil. Salt traps prevent salts from reaching the surface of the soil and also help to inhibit water loss. Irrigation improvements, which can inhibit water loss from evaporation and prevent salt accumulation. This technique involves changes in the design of irrigation systems to prevent water from pooling or evaporating easily from the soil. Cover crops, which prevent soil erosion from wind and water. They can also reduce the local effects of drought. On larger scales, plant cover can help maintain normal rainfall patterns. Cover crops may be perennials or fastgrowing annuals. Crop rotation, which involves the alternation of different crops on the same plot of land over different growing seasons. This technique can help maintain the productivity of the soil by replenishing critical nutrients removed during harvesting. Rotational grazing, which is the process of limiting the grazing pressure of livestock in a given area. Livestock are frequently moved to new grazing areas before they cause permanent damage to the plants and soil of any one area. Terracing, which involves the creation of multiple levels of flat ground that appear as long steps cut into hillsides. The technique slows the pace of runoff, which reduces soil erosion and retards overall water loss.

Remedies.
Contour bunding (or contour bundling), which involves the placement of lines of stones along the natural rises of a landscape. It helps to capture and hold rainfall before it can become runoff. It also inhibits wind erosion by keeping the soil heavy and moist. Contour bunding is similar to terracing. Windbreaks, which involve the establishment of lines of fast-growing trees planted at right angles to the prevailing surface winds. They are primarily used to slow wind-driven soil erosion but may be used to inhibit the encroachment of sand dunes. Dune stabilization, which involves the conservation of the plant community living along the sides of dunes. The upper parts of plants help protect the soil from surface winds, whereas the root network below keeps the soil together. Charcoal conversion improvements, which include the use of steel or mud kilns or high-pressure compacting equipment to press the wood and other plant residues into briquettes. Conversion improvements retain a greater fraction of the heating potential of fuelwood.

Water
The collection of flood water in any area is referred to as watershed management. Afterwards when the flood water recedes, these areas are used for agricultural purposes, for wildlife habitat and aquifer recharging etc. Watershed management can be helpful in the following ways: 1. By applying farming practices at high areas such as mountains, reduces soil loss. 2. Planting the trees retains soil on the earth. 3. It preserves water to recharge the aquifers. 4. To hold the water series of small dams should be made on the streams. 5. Fish breeding can be done in the collected water.

Diseases
If the environment keeps getting polluted, the health of mankind will also be deteriorated & many diseases will affect and strike. Some of them are: a. Air borne diseases Asthma, cough; due to SO2 Defects of nervous system; due to Pb Fibrosis, emphysema; due to NO and NO2 Bronchitis, respiratory problems; due to suspended particulate matters. b. Water borne diseases Cholera, dysentery, typhoid fever; due to bacterial infections. Hepatitis; due to viral infections. Amoebic dysentery; due to protozoal infections C. Vector borne diseases Malaria, Chickenguniya, Dengue etc Rabbies Leptospirosis. D. Life style diseases.

Food
Under Nourishment: The average energy requirement of a healthy man is about 2500 Calories/day, if the intake of calories is less than this then the individual becomes under-nourished. It affects human beings in following ways: 1. Inefficient energy makes human being unable to perform work properly. 2. Body becomes susceptible to disease lack of proper nutrients. 3. Mental retardation is seen. 4. Hormonal disorders such as goiter is seen. 5. Delayed adulthood is observed. 6. Physical abnormality generates social inferiority complex. Malnourishment: Lack of healthy ingredients in diet is called as malnutrition. Malnutrition bring following abnormalities:(1) Anemia: It is caused due to lack of iron in the diet and/or inability of tissues to absorb iron from the blood. (2) Goiter and hypothyroidism: It is caused due to deficiency of iodine in the diet. (3) The deficiency of vitamin such as vitamin A causes Night blindness, vitamin B causes (4) Beri-beri; vitamin C causes Scurvy, vitamin D causes Rickets etc. Over Nourishment or Obesity

Pollution
Air Pollution: Increase in particulate materials like dust, Smog, fog, Soot etc. released of incomplete burning of fuel, wood, croplands, transportation, urbanization. Release of Gases pollutants like CFCs, Co2, Methane, Co, H2S, NO2, So2, by Industries causes Acid rain, Global Warming and Climate Change. Water pollution: Due to dumping of Sewage, Solid Waste, Liquid Wastes, Fertilizers, Pesticides, Oil spill, Energy Discharge in the form Heat, Radio-active materials, etc causing Diseases in human Like Minamata disease due heavy metal contamination of water, Eutropication of water bodies, Loss of Marine and fresh water biodiversity, impacting food availability and livelihood. Soil Pollution: Increase in the use of Fertilizers and pesticides to increase soil productivity has reduced soil yield, caused BioAccumumlation and Bio- Magnification in the food chain eg. DDT, Erosion of the top layer due to deforestation and unplanned water management.

Pollution
Noise Pollution: Caused by exposure to high decibles of sound causing Psycho- Somotic diseases which create economic loses over billions of rupees due to people reporting ill for work. Food Pollution: Adulteration of food by adding chemicals like Chromium dye to haldi power, saw dust to coriander power, starch to milk etc creates mild gastro-intestinal disorders which affect 30% of the population per year. Genetic pollution: Indirect impact on the unborn child due to consumption of polluted water and adulterated resulting in genetic deformities is on the rise. Also areas using Nuclear Technology have more cases of genetic deformities as compared to other areas.

Terrorism
Terrorism is the use of unlawful violence or other harmful acts against civilians for the purposes of intimidation, coercion, ransom, or to further political and ideological goals. Acts of terrorism involve violence or the threat of violence, the deliberate targeting of civilians, and the intention to create fear and "terror" among the general public. Acts of terrorism can include assassinations, shootings, kidnappings, hijackings, unlawful destruction of property, bomb scares and bombings, computer-based cyber attacks, and the use of chemical, biological, nuclear and radiological weapons. Mumbais economy, which contributes as much as 5% of Indias $1 trillion GDP and nearly a third of its direct taxes, stands as a beacon of Indias success in integrating itself in the global economy. Post 26/11 , loss in business due to the attacks to be about $100 billion, arising from crucial institutions, such as the stock exchanges, commodities and money markets, and business and commercial establishments which remained closed. Furthermore, the foreign exchange front got hit by $20 billion.

War
Colonization was an integral part of power expansion in medieval times. The evolution of technology has resulted in new range of weapons. Use of weapons of destruction has increased 1200% in the past 200 years. War has been the greatest controlling factor in the human growth story. WWI 11,016,000 lives lost- financial cost-$196.5 billion WWII- 59,028,000 lives lost- financial cost-$2,091.3 billion Most of the weapons need to be discarded every time new technology comes to light. This is not just a waste of resources but also a waste of human effort and time. The greatest danger is Biological weapons.

Population Explosion
1. Increase in cost of living. 2. living condition would get worse, which may cause more disease, and thus tax might be increased to support hospital. 3. Unemployment rate might increase (which may trig more crime) 4. Food price would increase due to the increase of food consumption and decrease of the land available for agriculture. 5. More demand on natural resources such as water, warmth, shelter, food. 6. More food is then needed such as cows, pigs (to produce the meats and milk (cows)). They then let methane gases into the atmosphere leading to global warming. 7. More land is needed to build houses on so deforestation happens - leads to more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere because the trees are not there to change carbon dioxide into oxygen so less oxygen for people to breathe in. 8. The more CO2 in the atmosphere leads to global warming. 9. More water means less water for things like animals and plants so they die off and then there is less for people to eat causing a famine, which then leads to death. 10. Increasing divide between rich and poor. Under population is a new problem in Developed Nations.

Multilateral Environmental Agreements

UN Framework Convention On Climate Change Montreal Protocol on Ozone Protection Convention On Biological Diversity Convention On Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution Convention On International Trade In Endangered Species Basel Convention On Control Of Hazardous Wastes Convention To Combat Desertification International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling

UN Framework Convention On Climate Change

The UNFCCC entered into force on 21 March 1994. Today, it has near-universal membership. The 195 countries that have ratified the Convention are called Parties to the Convention. The UNFCCC is a Rio Convention, one of three adopted at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992. Its sister Rio Conventions are the UN Convention on Biological Diversity and the Convention to Combat Desertification. The three are intrinsically linked. It is in this context that the Joint Liaison Group was set up to boost cooperation among the three Conventions, with the ultimate aim of developing synergies in their activities on issues of mutual concern. It now also incorporates the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. Preventing dangerous human interference with the climate system is the ultimate aim of the UNFCCC.

Outcome
Recognized that there was a problem. This was remarkable for its time. Remember, in 1994, when the UNFCCC took effect, there was less scientific evidence than there is now. The UNFCCC borrowed a very important line from one of the most successful multilateral environmental treaties in history (the Montreal Protocol, in 1987): it bound member states to act in the interests of human safety even in the face of scientific uncertainty. Sets a lofty but specific goal. The ultimate objective of the Convention is to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations "at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic (human induced) interference with the climate system." It states that "such a level should be achieved within a time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production is not threatened, and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner."

 Put the onus on developed countries to lead the way. The idea is that, as they are the source of most past and current greenhouse gas emissions, industrialized countries are expected to do the most to cut emissions on home ground. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) included 12 countries with economies in transition from Central and Eastern Europe. Annex I countries were expected by the year 2000 to reduce emissions to 1990 levels. Many of them have taken strong action to do so, and some have already succeeded. The Kyoto Protocol Directed new funds to climate change activities in developing countries. Industrialized nations agree under the Convention to support climate change activities in developing countries by providing financial support for action on climate change-- above and beyond any financial assistance they already provide to these countries. A system of grants and loans has been set up through the Convention and is managed by the Global Environment Facility. Industrialized countries also agree to share technology with less-advanced nations.

 Charted the beginnings of a path to strike a delicate balance. Economic development is particularly vital to the world's poorer countries. Such progress is difficult to achieve even without the complications added by climate change. The Convention takes this into consideration by accepting that the share of greenhouse gas emissions produced by developing nations will grow in the coming years. Nonetheless, in the interests of fulfilling its ultimate goal, it seeks to help such countries limit emissions in ways that will not hinder their economic progress. One such win-win solution was to emerge later, when the Kyoto Protocol to the Convention was conceived. the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol

 Kicked off formal consideration of adaptation to climate change. The Convention acknowledges the vulnerability of all countries to the effects of climate change and calls for special efforts to ease the consequences especially in developing countries which lack the resources to do so on their own. In the early years of the Convention, adaptation received less attention than mitigation, as Parties wanted more certainty on impacts of and vulnerability to climate change. When IPCCs Third Assessment Report was released, adaptation gained traction, and Parties agreed on a process to address adverse effects and to establish funding arrangements for adaptation. Currently, work on adaptation takes place under different Convention bodies.

The Adaptation Committee, which Parties agreed to set up under the Cancun Adaptation Framework as part of the Cancun Agreements, is a major step towards a cohesive, Convention-based approach to adaptation.