ECT2036

Circuits & Signals

 Course Structure
1. Network Topology
2. Intro to Signals
3. App. of Fourier Series
4. Frequency Domain Analysis
5. Two-port Networks
6. State Variable Analysis on RLC Networks
7. Elements of Network Synthesis
8. Filters
 Assessment

Final 60%
Midterm 15%
Asign. (group) 15%
Lab 10%
TOTAL: 100%
 ECT2036:
CIRCUITS & SIGNALS

CHAPTER 1:
NETWORK TOPOLOGY
 CONTENTS:
 Introduction to Network Graph
 Network Graph Terminology
 Node and Mesh Analysis
 Tree Branch Selection
 Fundamental Loop & Cutset methods of
analysis
NETWORK TOPOLOGY/GRAPH
 Network Topology/Graph: The properties that
relate to the geometry of the network (circuit).
 These properties remain unchanged even if the
circuit is bent into any other shape provided that
no parts are cut and no new connections are
made.
 Knowledge about network topology can help one
select good analysis procedures (mesh or node
analysis) for a given electrical network.
NETWORK GRAPH TERMINOLOGY
 GRAPH: a representation of a circuit where each branch is
denoted by a line segment.

 ELEMENT: A fundamental unit; eg., a resistor, a capacitor,

an inductor.
 NODE: A point at which two or more elements are
connected.
 PATH: A set of elements that may be traversed in order
without passing through the same node twice.
 BRANCH: A single path which connects one
node to another node (via a single element).
 LOOP: A path where the ending node is the
same as the beginning node. This is also called
a closed path.
 MESH: a loop which does not contain any loops
within it.
 TREE (of a graph): a set of branches (each
denoted by a line segment) that connects every
node to every other node via some path without
forming a loop.
 COTREE: Those branches of a graph which are
not part of a particular tree. Also known as the
complement of the tree.
 LINK/CHORD: Branch that is not considered in a
selected tree.
 CUTSET: A minimum set of branches that when
cut, will divide a graph into two separate parts.
 FUNDAMENTAL CUTSET: A cutset containing
only a single tree branch & minimum number of
links.
 FUNDAMENTAL LOOP: A loop that results when
a link is put into the tree.
 Example 1: Circuit & Graph

There is only ONE graph

for a circuit – though there
may be many ways to
draw it.
 Example 2: Tree & CoTree
TREE: The sub-graph COTREE:
2. Is connected Complement
3. Connect all of
nodes a tree
4. DO NOT form
loops

There are SEVERAL trees for

a graph, and each tree has its
corresponding cotree.
 TREE & CoTREE
 Let B = number of branches in the graph
N = number of nodes in the graph
L = number of links
 The min. number of branches in a tree Bt = N – 1
 The number of links:
L = B – (N – 1) = B – N + 1
 FUNDAMENTAL CUTSET
 Fundamental cutset: A set of branches containing one
tree branch and min. no. of links, such that its removal
makes the connected graph unconnected.
 Total fundamental cutset:
= total no. of tree branches 1 2
=N-1
3
Fundamental Cutset 1: {4, 1} 4 5

Fundamental Cutset 2: {3, 1, 2}

Fundamental Cutset 3: {5, 2}
Tree: Solid lines
CoTree: Dotted lines
 FUNDAMENTAL LOOP
 Fundamental loop: Loop formed with the tree branches
and link when one link is added to the selected tree at a
time.
 Total no. of fundamental loops
= total no. of links/chords
=B–N+1

Fundamental Loop I: {2, 3, 1}

Fundamental Loop II: {4, 3, 5}
 FUNDAMENTAL CUTSET &
LOOP
 Orientation of fundamental
cutset:
Follow the orientation of tree
branch present in the set.

 Orientation of fundamental
loop:
Follow the orientation of link
present in the set.
Example:
In figure below, the branches of a tree T marked as
continuous lines and its chords as doted lines.
(i) List all f-loops of that tree, giving the branches
present in each f-loop.
(ii) List all the f-cutsets of that tree, giving the
branches present in each cutset.

a b c
1 6
2 4 7

d 5 8 e

f
Solution:
i. Loop – a path where the ending node is the same as the
beginning node. Also called a closed path.
F. Loop – loop formed with tree branches & link when 1 link
(cotree) is added to the selected tree at a time.

a b b c 1 c
1 6 a b

2 4 4 7 4 7

d 5 8 e 8 e

f f f
fL2 = (2, 5, 4, 1) fL6 = ( 6, 7, 8, 4) f L3 = (3, 7, 8, 4, 1)
ii. F. Cutset – a set of branches containing one tree branch
& min. no. of links, such that its removal makes the
connected graph unconnected.

fC4 fC8

fC1 3 fC7
fC1 = (1, 2, 3)
b fC4 = (4, 2, 3, 6)
a c
1 6
fC5 = (5, 2)
2 4 7
fC7 = (7, 3, 6)
d e
5 8 fC8 = (8, 3, 6)
fC5 f
 AUGMENTED NODAL
INCIDENCE MATRIX, A
 For a connected graph of n nodes and b branches,
the nodal matrix A will have dimensions n x b
 Elements of A depend on the nature of the oriented
graph.
 The element aij of the matrix A can be defined as:

+ 1 if branch j comes out from node i


aij =  0 if branch j not at all touching node i
− 1 if branch j is towards node i

 Example 3: Augmented
Nodal Incidence Matrix

 Graph:
4 nodes, 6 branches
 (4 × 6) matrix A

1 2 3 4 5 6 Branc
h
1  − 1 0 0 1 0 − 1
 
 Augmented Nodal 2  0 0 −1 0 −1 1 
Incidence Matrix, A 3  0 −1 0 −1 1 0 
 
4  1 1 1 0 0 0 


Node
 If we select node 4 as reference, − 1 0 0 1 0 − 1
A = 0 0 − 1 0 − 1 1 
the matrix A change  3 × 6 
 0 −1 0 −1 1 0 

 Apply KCL for the graph − i1 + i 4 − i6 = 0

branch  current (i1, i2, i3) i3 − i5 + i6 = 0
− i 2 − i 4 + i5 = 0

 i1 
 KCL equation in matrix form: i 
− 1 0 0 1 0 − 1  2 
A i=0 0  i3 
 0 − 1 0 − 1 1   = 0
 i4 
 0 − 1 0 − 1 1 0
i 5 
 
i6 
 MESH INCIDENCE MATRIX
 With the b no. of branches and possible l no. of
loops in the graph, the mesh incidence matrix B
will have dimensions l × b

 The element bij of the matrix B can be defined as:

+ 1 if branch j is oriented in the direction of the loop i


bij =  0 if branch j does not appear in loop i
− 1 if branch j is oriented opposite to that of loop i

 Example 4: Mesh Incidence
Matrix
 Graph:
3 loops, 6 branches
 (3 × 6) matrix B

1 2 3 4 5 6 Branc
h
I  1 −1 0 1 0 0 
 Mesh Incidence  
B = II  0 1 − 1 1 0 0 
Matrix, B
III  0 0 0 1 1 1 
Loop
 Matrix B and KVL equation for Loops I, II, III

1 − 1 0 1 0 0 e1 − e2 + e4 = 0
B = 0 1 − 1 1 0 0 e2 − e3 + e5 = 0
0 0 0 1 1 1 e4 + e5 + e6 = 0
 In matrix form
 e1 
e 
1 − 1 0 1 0 0  
2

B e=0 0 1 − 1 1 0 0 e3  = 0
  e 
0 0 0 1 1 1  4 
e5 
 
e6 

Nodal Matrix A  Branch to node  KCL

Mesh Matrix B  Branch to loop  KVL
 NODE & MESH ANALYSIS
 NODE & MESH analysis: The easiest way to
obtain the system variables.
 In node analysis:
No. of independent voltages = No. of nodes – reference node
 Suitable for network with no voltage source.
 In mesh analysis:
No. of mesh currents = No. of independent currents
 Suitable for network with no current source.
 What if a network has voltage + current sources?
 Can use either method.
 Example 5: Write down the node equations for the circuit below.
Then, find the branch voltage, e and branch current, i

Graph

 No. of independent voltages = 3 V1 

V = V 
 The current source matrix, I 0   2
0  V3 
 The voltage source matrix, E 3  
0  0 
 Branch admittance,1 / 2Y 0 0 0 0 0    I = 
 0 1/ 2 0 0 0 0  0  0 
 0 0 1/ 2 0 0 0  E=  0 
Y =  0
   
 0 0 0 1/ 2 0 0  3

0 
0 0 0 0 1/ 2 0   
 
 0 0 0 0 0 1 / 2 0
 The nodal incidence matrix, A − 1 0 0 1 0 1 
A =  0 0 − 1 − 1 1 0 
reference
 0 − 1 0 0 − 1 − 1

 Important equations for nodal analysis:

e = AT V e = branch voltage matrix
i = Ye − ( I − YE ) i = branch current matrix
V = node voltage matrix
Yn = AYAT
Y = branch admittance
−1
V = Yn A( I − YE ) Yn = node admittance matrix
 First, compute value of V  V = Yn −1 A( I − YE )
where Yn = node admittance matrix = A Y AT
Yn = A Y AT
1 0 0 0 0 0  − 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0  0 0 − 1
− 1 0 0 1 0 1 
  1 0 0 1 0 0 0  0 − 1 0 
Yn =  0 0 − 1 − 1 1 0 •  • 
2 0 0 0 1 0 0  1 − 1 0 
 0 − 1 0 0 − 1 − 1
0 0 0 0 1 0  0 1 − 1
   
0 0 0 0 0 1  1 0 − 1
 3 − 1 − 1
1
= − 1 3 − 1
2
− 1 − 1 3 
 ∴ the value of independent voltages, V will be:
−1
V = Yn A( I − YE )
 0  1 0 0 0   3 
0 0
  0 
0 1 0 0 0 
0 0
V1  2 1 1  − 1 0 0 1 0 1    
V  = 1 1 2 1   0 0 − 1 − 1 1  0 1 0 0 1 0 0 
0 0
 2 2   0    −   
0 2 0 0 0 1 0
0  0  
V3  1 1 2  0 − 1 0 0 − 1 − 1  
 0  0 0 0 0 1 0  0  
    
3 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 
V1   3.0 
∴ V2  =  0.75 
V3  − 0.75

Note: Yn-1 = inverse of matrix Yn

 Finally, the corresponding branch voltage and current are:

e = AT V i = Ye − ( I − YE )
 e1   − 3.0   i1   0 
e   0.75  i   0.375 
 2 V1     2  
 e3  T   − 0.75 i3  − 0.375
  = A V2  =    = 
e
 4 V3  
2 .25  i4   1.125 
 e5   1.50  i5   0.75 
       
e6   3.75  i6   − 1.125 
 Example 6: Write down the mesh equations for the circuit below.
Then, find the branch voltage, e and branch current, i

Graph

 No. of mesh currents = 3  im1 

0  im = im 2 
 The current source matrix, I
0  im3 
 The voltage source matrix, E 3  
0  0 
 Branch impedance, Z 2 0 0 0 0 0   I = 
0 2 0 0 0 0 0  0 
0 0 2 0 0 0 E=  0 
Z =  0   
0 0 0 2 0 0
0  3
0 0 0 0 2 0
   
0 0 0 0 0 2 0
 − 1 0 1 − 1 0 0 
 The mesh incidence matrix, B B =  0 1 − 1 0 − 1 0 
 0 0 0 1 1 − 1

e = Zi − ( E − ZI )
 Important equations for mesh analysis: i = B T i
m
−1
im = Z m B( E − ZI )
−1
 First, compute value of im  im = Z m B( E − ZI )
where Zm = mesh impedance matrix = B Z BT
1 0 0 0 0 0  − 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0  0 1 0 
− 1 0 1 −1 0 0 
0 0 1 0 0 0  1 − 1 0 
Z m =  0 1 − 1 0 − 1 0  • 2 • 
0 0 0 1 0 0  − 1 0 1 
 0 0 0 1 1 − 1 
0 0 0 0 1 0  0 − 1 1 
   
0 0 0 0 0 1  0 0 − 1
3 − 1 − 1
= 2 − 1 3 − 1
− 1 − 1 3 
 ∴ the value of mesh currents, im will be:
−1
im = Z m B ( E − ZI )
3 1 0 0 0  0  
0 0
   
  0  0 1 0 0 0 
0 0
 m1 
i  2 1 1  − 1 0 + 1 − 1 0 0 
i  = 1 2 1   0 1 − 1 0 − 1 0  0 − 2 0
1 0 1 0 0 
0 0
 m2  8     0  0 0 0 1
 
0
0  0  
im 3  1 1 2  0 0 0 + 1 + 1 − 1   
 0  0 0 0 0 1 0  0  
    
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 
 im1   0.0 
i  = 0.375
 m2   
im 3  1.125 

Note: Zm-1 = the inverse of matrix

Zm
 Finally, the corresponding branch voltage and current are:

i = B T im e = Zi − ( E − ZI )
 i1   0   e1   − 3.0 
i   0.375  e   0.75 
 2    2  
i3  − 0.375 e3  − 0.75
 =   = 
i
 4  1 .125  e4   2.25 
i5   0.75  e5   1.50 
       
i6   − 1.125  e6   3.75 

Compare the results obtained by

nodal and mesh equations method!
 TREE BRANCH SELECTION
1. Select minimum number of branches to connect
all nodes in the graph without forming any loop

Voltage source Tree

Current source CoTree
Capacitance Tree
Inductance CoTree
Resistance Tree/CoTree (whichever is
more suitable)
 NUMBERING SEQUENCES
 First number  all voltage sources.
 Then, follows to other tree branches.
 Next, cotree branches except current sources.
 Finally, numbered all current sources.

TREE BRANCH SELECTION & NUMBERING

SEQUENCES are essential to reduce the
complexity and burden in the analysis of the
electric network
 Example 7: Illustrate tree branch selection & numbering
sequences for the following electrical network.

 No. of tree branch → 4 – 1 = 3 Langarangian tree: All

tree branches meet at
 One tree branch  voltage source, e1one node
The other tree branches  resistances R1 and R2
 CoTree  branch 4, 5, 6
 Remember the Numbering Sequences!!!
voltage s.  other tree branches  cotree/chords
 current s.
 FUNDAMENTAL CUTSET
MATRIX
 Fundamental Cutset Matrix, C
0 if branch j does not belong to cutset i
Cij = + 1 if the orientation of the branch j is equal to the cutset i
 − 1 if the direction of branch j and cutset i does not match

1 2 3 4 5 6 Branc
h
1  1 0 0 − 1 0 − 1
 
2  0 0 1 1 −1 0 
3  0 1 0 0 1 1 

Cutset
 FUNDAMENTAL TIE-SET
(LOOP) MATRIX
 Fundamental Tie-set (Loop) Matrix, D
0 if branch j does not appear in fundamental loop i
Dij = + 1 if the orientation of the branch j is equal to the loop i
 − 1 if the orientation of j and loop i differs

1 2 3 4 5 6 Branc
h
I  1 0 −1 1 0 0 
 
II  0 −1 1 0 1 0
III  1 − 1 0 0 0 1 

Cutset
 Example 8: Solve the circuit of example 5 by using Cutset
analysis method.

Graph

 No. of tree branch voltages = 3  et1 

0  et = et 2 
 The current source matrix, I
0  et 3 
 The voltage source matrix, E  3  
0  0 
 Branch admittance, Y 1 0 0 0 0 0   I = 
0 1 0 0 0 0 0  0 
E=  0 
1 0 0 1 0 0 0
Y=   0   
2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0  3
0 0 0 0 1 0  
  0
0 0 0 0 0 1
 1 0 0 − 1 0 − 1
 The cutset matrix, C
C = 0 1 0 0 1 1 
0 0 1 1 − 1 0 

e = C T et
 Important equations for nodal analysis:
i = Ye − ( I − YE )
−1
et = YC C ( I − YE )
 First, compute value of et  et = YC −1C ( I − YE )
where YC = cutset admittance matrix = A Y AT
1 0 0 0 0 0  1 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0  0 1 0 
1 0 0 − 1 0 − 1 
1 0 0 1 0 0 0  0 0 1
YC = 0 1 0 0 1 1  •  • 
2 0 0 0 1 0 0 − 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 − 1 0 
0 0 0 0 1 0  0 1 − 1
   
0 0 0 0 0 1 − 1 0 0 
 3 − 1 − 1
1
= − 1 3 − 1
2
− 1 − 1 3 
 ∴ the value of tree branch voltages, et will be:
−1
et = YC C ( I − YE )
 0  1 0 0 0  3 
0 0
  0 
0 1 0 0 0 
0 0
 et1  2 1 1  1 0 0 − 1 0 − 1   
e  = 1 1 2 1  0 1 0 0 1 1  0 − 1 0 0 1 0 0 
0 0
 t2  2     0  2 0 0 0 1
 
0
0  0  
et 3  1 1 2 0 0 1 1 − 1 0    
 0  0 0 0 0 1 0  0  
    
 
3 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 
 et1   − 3.0 
e  =  0.75 
 t2   
et 3  − 0.75

Note: YC-1 = the inverse of matrix

YC
 Finally, the corresponding branch voltage and current are:

e = C T et i = Ye − ( I − YE )
 e1   − 3.0   i1   0 
e   0.75  i   0.375 
 2  et1     2  
e3  T  − 0.75 i3  − 0.375
  = C et 2  =    = 
e4   2.25  i
 4  1 .125 
et 3 
e5   1.50  i5   0.75 
       
e6   3.75  i6   − 1.125 
 Example 9: Solve the circuit of example 5 by using Loop analysis
method.

Graph

 No. of chord currents = 3  ic1 

0  ic = ic 2 
 The current source matrix, I
0  ic 3 
 The voltage source matrix, E 3  
0  0 
 Branch impedance, Z 2 0 0 0 0 0   I = 
0 2 0 0 0 0 0  0 
0 0 2 0 0 0 E=  0 
Z =  0   
0 0 0 2 0 0
0  3
0 0 0 0 2 0
   
0 0 0 0 0 2 0
 1 0 − 1 1 0 0
 The loop matrix, D D = 0 − 1 1 0 1 0
1 − 1 0 0 0 1

e = Zi − ( E − ZI )
 Important equations for mesh analysis:
i = D T ic
−1
ic = Z L D( E − ZI )
−1
 First, compute value of ic  iC = Z L D( E − ZI )
where ZL = loop impedance matrix = D Z DT
1 0 0 0 0 0  1 0 1 
0 1 0 0 0 0  0 − 1 − 1
1 0 − 1 1 0 0 
0 0 1 0 0 0  − 1 1 0 
Z L = 0 − 1 1 0 1 0 • 2 • 
0 0 0 1 0 0  1 0 0 
1 − 1 0 0 0 1 
0 0 0 0 1 0  0 1 0 
   
0 0 0 0 0 1  0 0 1 
 3 − 1 1
= 2− 1 3 1
 1 1 3
 ∴ the value of chord currents, ic will be:
−1
iC = Z L D( E − ZI )
  3  1 0 0 0  0  
0 0
   
  0  0 1 0 0 0 
0 0
 C1 
i  2 1 − 1 1 0 + 1 1 0 0 
i  =  1 2 − 1 0 − 1 − 1 0 1 0 0 − 2 0
1 0 1 0 0 
0 0
 C2  8     0  0 0 0 1
 
0
0  0  
iC 3  − 1 − 1 2  1 − 1 0 0 0 1   
 0  0 0 0 0 1 0  0  
    
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 
 iC1   1.125 
i  =  0.75 
 C2   
iC 3  − 1.125

Note: ZL-1 = the inverse of matrix

ZL
 Finally, the corresponding branch voltage and current are:

i = D T iC e = Zi − ( E − ZI )
 i1   0   e1   − 3.0 
i   0.375  e   0.75 
 2    2  
i3  − 0.375 e3  − 0.75
 =   = 
i 1 .125 e
 4  2.25 
 4  
i5   0.75  e5   1.50 
       
i6   − 1.125  e6   3.75 

Compare the results obtained by

fundamental cut-set and loop
methods! And also by node and
mesh analysis…
All the answers obtained by the
 SUMMARY
 There are four types of analysis methods:
1) Node/Nodal Analysis
2) Mesh/Loop Analysis
3) Fundamental Cut-set Analysis
4) Fundamental Loop Analysis

 These four-analysis methods will give the same

results (branch voltage and current)
 IMPORTANT EQUATIONS
1. Node 2. Mesh
Analysis Analysis
−1 −1
V = Yn A( I − YE ) im = Z m B( E − ZI )
e = ATV e = Zi − ( E − ZI )
i = Ye − ( I − YE ) i = B T im

3. Cut-set 4. Loop
Analysis
−1
Analysis
−1
et = YC C ( I − YE ) ic = Z L D( E − ZI )
e = C T et e = Zi − ( E − ZI )
i = Ye − ( I − YE ) i = D T ic