Lightning

Lightning greatest cause of outages: 1- 26% outages in 230 KV CCTs & 65% of outages in 345 KV Results of study on 42 Companies in USA & CANADA And 47% of 33 KV sys in UK study of 50000 faults reports Also Caused by Lightning Clouds acquire charge& Electric fields within them and between them

Development
When E excessive: space Insulation Breakdown or lightning flash occur A high current discharge Those terminate on or near power lines similar to: close a switch between cloud & line or adjacent earth a direct con. Or through mutual coupling

Lightning surge
Disturbance on a lineTraveling wave Travel both Direction, 1/2IZ0 lightning current Z0=Surge Imp. Line The earth carries a net negative charge of 5x10^5 C, downward E=0.13KV/m An equivalent pos. charge in space Upper Atmosph. Mean potential of 300 KV relative to earth I:

Lightning
Localized charge of thunder clouds superimposes its field on the fine weather field, freq. causing it to reverse As charges within cloud & by induction on earth below, field sufficient Breakdown(30 KV/cm) Photographic evidence: a stepped leader stroke, random manner &short steps from cloud to earth Then a power return stroke moves up the ionized channel prepared by leader

Interaction Between Lightning & Power System

Goal: reduce service Interruption by lightning Need : A model for lightning stroke used with Sys Eq. CCT & study Interaction Lightning strikes a power line: -a current injected to Power sys. -through an Impedance(i.e.tower impedance) The voltage across insulator & flashover To avoid it, ground wires are used and then: 1-tower imp. Parallel Gr. w. Imp. ,&reduce Eq. Imp. 2-shield the phase conductors, i.e. lightning strike Gr. W. 3-total Imp. Reduced & tower top voltage is less (tower Gr. Resistance should be low.)

Lightning Equivalent CCT

Assuming cloud & earth forming a cap., Discharged by stroke return CCT completed by displacement current in Elec. Field Bewley, calculated Induct. Of path: L=2x10^(-7)[1-(x/r)] dx/x H/m= C=0 A/d =

=2x10^(-7) ln(r2/r1)=2.18mH (integ. From: r1=10 cm to r2=1 km)

=8.854x10^(-12)xx10^6/(10^3x4)=6.95 nF

(or: if 4 canceled 28 nF)

Parameters of Lightning Model

Z0=540 & a period of 24s resistance of ionized path, damp Osc. if: resistance 5000 , result in approx. a 1.5:30 s wave More accurate representation: Consider the leader stroke & prestrike parallel plate capacitor not adequate

Griscom Eq. CCT. For Lightning considering prestike

(a) Traveling Model (b) Lumped Model Prestrike initiat. Switch closes& charge circulate in CCT : (a) Simplified CCT :(b) Distributed Rep. of Arc channel & Tower replaced by: Lumped CCT. Constants

Isokeraunic Map
How vulnerable is Trans. & Dis. To Lightning : 1-depends on geographic location Lightning activity varies place to place 2-depends how attractive is a line as termination for lightning Keraunic level (T): degree of lightning activity :No. of days/yr thunder heard GFD: a new parameter defined as Ground flash rate (number of cloud to ground flashes per square meter /year) GFD=0.04 T ^(0.25)

Isokeraunic Map for a Region

ISOkeraunic

kraunic Level
is statistical & sometimes: vary : yr to yr & season to season Other factors also introduce uncertainties in predicting lightning performance of lines Taller structures being more likely to struck According to Anderson: N0. Lightn./100 km/yr, NL=0.004 x T^1.35 x (b+4h^1.09) Defined shadow angle as Fig in next slide h: average height of shield wires, b: spacing between S.W.

Electrical Shadow
h=hmax-2/3 sag ex: T=30,h=26m, b=6.7m for a 230 kV line then: NL=0.004x30^1.35(b+
4x26^1.09)=57.67

The impact on line depends on: 1-stroke current Mag. 2-r.r.of stroke current

Stroke currnet Magnitude

Anderson & Erikson collected Data Fig illustration of prob. Of a range of stroke current magnitude PI=1/[1+(I/31)^2.6] pu PI: probability of exceeding stroke current I I: stroke current in kA Velocity of surges on eq. line model of tower is approx. 85% speed of light Different tower design different Z

Surge Impedance of Towers

Zt (class 1)= 30ln[2(h +r )/r ] Zt (class 2) =1/2(Zs+Zm) Zs=60ln(h/r)+90(r/h)-60

zm=60ln(h/b)+90(b/h)-60

Zt (class 3)=
60ln[ln(2 2h/r)-1] a 35-m class 1 tower base 2r=12m,Z=88.4

Thevenin Eq. CCT. Of Lightning

Tower tops connected to a GW: ZGW=520, Zeff=[ZTxo.5ZGW] / [ZT+0.5ZGW]=65.97 Lightning stroke as a current source: its Thevenin eq. CCT. ZS:Impedance of L.Channel Z: Impedance of stricken object Z in top example=65.97 Z(stroke mid span)=0.5 ZGW

Example continued
Surge voltage: Is. Z. Zs/ [Z + Zs]=IsZ/[1+Z/Zs]= IsZGW/2{1/[1+(ZGW/2Zs)} Zs, few 1000 & ZGW few 100 Therefore surge voltageIsZGW/2 Waves encounter discontinuities: 1-adjacent towers, 2-tower footing resist Low footing res. neg. ref. coef. Which reduce tower potential

Conclusions
if footing res. High, top voltage increase Potential diff. across string insulators can cause flashover Cross-arm potential between tower top and tower foot potentials Wave traveling on GW induce voltage on ph. Conductors by a factor: 0.15<K<0.3

Discussion continued
at least one ph. Opp. Polarity of Lightning Surge (TABLE Earth Resistivity) This ph. more likely to flash & called: Back flashover Tower footing resistance very important & depend on: 1-local resistivity of earth, 2-connection between tower & ground

Material

general av 100 Sea water 0.01-1.0 swampy G 10-100 Dry earth 1000

Pure slate 10^7

sandstone 10^8

Insulation Coordination
Basic Ideas: overvoltages on PWR SYS 1-switching operations 2-faults & abnormal conditions 3-Lightning How to protect PWR SYS: is an Economic 1-unrealistic to insulate against any surge. 2-unrealistic to only insulate against S.S. A compromise is needed: A reasonable investment in 1- insulation 2-reliable protective devices; guard against uncontrollable transients Above item called INSULATION COORDINATION

Objectives of Insulation Coordination

Design the insulation of a power system with all its components to: Minim. damage & service interruption as a consequence of: a-S.S. b-dynamic c-transient O.V. s and do so ECONOMICALLY to achieve this goal need information

Information needed for Ins.Cor.

A-STRESS: 1- likely mag. & frequency of occur. of Lightn. And sw. surges; PWR SYS EQUIP. will be 2-how distribute between &within components B-strength: dielectric withstand of various ins. Sys.s C-protection devices & arrangements to eliminate or reduce their effect D-Economics: item 1,2&3 coordinated to be effective and Economic
subjected to

The Strength of Insulation

voltage withstand of an insulation depends on: 1-magnitude of stress 2-rate at which is applied 3-duration of the stress
dielectric strength is waveform dependent

Dielectric strength is statistic

Insulation Withstand Evaluation

wave form dependence& breakdown time lag can be quantified by: VOLT TIME CURVE Gen. of V.T.C. for a string of INSUL. 1-series of surges from low to high, in step 2-waveform fixed just mag. changed At least 3 Tests at each voltage level Critical flashover:50% flash&50% do not This called CFO

Examples of Volt-time curve

a 20-inch rod gap: sharp turn-up a long air gap B.D. in open air depend on: 1-relative humidity 2-air pressure sw surge strength for neg impulse higher ignored in : Flashover Failure Rate B.D. liquid similar to gas up to streamer M. Solid ins. B.D. progressive, P.D. occur in voids

Discussion on different INS. B.D.s

B.D. in solid ins. Is not self-healing Insulators of T.L. flashover then : (self-restoring) 1-C.B. operate and eliminate fault 2-arc path deionizes 3-& C.B. can be reclosed in less than a second Solid ins. Of Transformer or cable 1-fault destructive 2-fault permanent 3-equipment should be removed from service & repaired These faults should be avoided and protected against

Statistical properties of Voltage Withstand of an equipment

Insulation can withstand one surge appliaction & fail in second, withstand voltage of equipment is definable in statistical term W.Volt. has a probability Dis. With: a mean & standard deviation W.Volt.:self-restoring INS can be det.

Withstand Voltage Probability Distribution

uncertainty physics of : electric discharge & insulation B.D. Suppose n tests with each VT1,VT2,,VTr on any sample result in :
relative frequency of failure : k/n
where: k: number of failure at VTk

Graph expressing dependence of failure prob. P= k/n on VTk

CUMULATIVE DIS. FUNC.

F(VT)=p[VW<VT]

f(VT)=dF(VT)/dVT its DENSITY FUNCTION

DENSITY FUNCTION of VOLTAGE WITHSTAND

H.V. gaps approx. Normal Dis. ,Gaussian

1 f ( x) e 2

1 2

2 ( x ) 2

1 F (VT ) 2
=mean value: CFO

VT

1 2

2 ( x ) 2

dx

Discussion on Density & Cumulative functions

F area under f(x) between x1,x2 CFO crest of Impulse cause FOV. 50% CFO is polarity sensitive Disposition about CFO given by In Integral EQ. ;can substitute r.h.s. 1/(2 ).(x-) =1/2.[(x-CFO)/] Normalize EQ. by defining Z=(x-)/ Therefore integrating Z1 to Z2 (x1 to x2) Reduce No. of required Normal curves to 1

Example on Application of Transformed Normal EQ. & Table

A string of Insulators CFO=920 kV +ve switching Imp.s & =5% P(820<VT<880)=? = 0.05x920=46 kV Z1=(820-920)/46=-2.174,Z2=(880-920)/46=-0.86
P(820<VT<880)=P(-2.174<Z<-0.8696) =p(Z<-0.8696)-P(Z<-2.174)= 0.1922-0.0148=0.1774 Proability : 17.74%

INSULATION COORDINATION STRATEGY

power sys components act as antenna picking up surges surges should be prevented reaching equipments This done by INS. COORD. 1-line ins. Flashover before solid 2-volt-time of Line Ins. lies below that of Terminal Components Fig coordinated with (a) not (b)

Coordination of Insulation Strength & expected Overvoltages

Fig: superposition of air volt-time & envelope of Sys O/Vs,lacking Co.(L.,sw) Surge protective fitted to coordination Strategy Su.Prot.D. operate to restrict voltage within Dielectric capability of device INS. & 1-Transf. Bushing flashover before wind 2-C.B. in open position, flashover to ground before spark over between its contacts

Test Voltage Waveforms & Transient Ratings: BIL - BSL

Representative surges: 1-Pwr Freq. 2-Sw surge 3-Impulse wave tf: 1.6 x time between 30% to 90% on wave front, tt : time from origin to 1/2 value point on the back The IEC standard Imp. 1.2/50 wave The IEC standard SW. 250/2500 wave V.W.S. in terms BIL(basic lightning impulse ins. L.) V.W.S. in terms BSL(basic sw. impulse ins. L.)
of wave

Examples of BIL & BSL

INS. with special BIL or BSL: lack disruptive discharges up to the Level Different Meaning: 1-for self-restoring INS.:90% prob. of Withstand 2- for non-self-restoring INS. : No disruptive discharge For a 13.8 kV Transf. BIL is 95 kV also 75 & 50 kV available less expensive, more vulnerable full BSL for this Transformer : 75 kV

BIL & BSL Continued

Margin between rated & BIL
reduce as V increase

Vmax design voltage=362 kV, BIL=1300kV corresponding reduced levels 1175,1050kV

Rotating Machines lower BIL: According to ANSI : if E; line to line voltage in kV BIL=1.25(2x2E+1) for 23 kV generator, BIL is 83 kV

Statistical Approach to Insulation Coordination

Assignment N0.4 (Solution)

Question 1 13.8 KV, 3ph Bus L=0.4/314=1.3 mH

Xc=13.8 /5.4=35.27 , C=90.2F Z0=101.3/9.02=3. 796 Vc(0)=11.27KV Ipeak=18000/3.796= 4.74 KA

Question 1
1- Vp=2x18-11.27=24.73 KV Trap 2- Assuming no damping, reaches Again the same neg. peak and 11.27KV trap 3- 1/2 cycle later (18-11.27)=-6.73 Vp2=-(24.73+2x6.73)=-38.19 KV

Question 2
C.B. reignites during opening&1st Peak voltage on L2 L2=352,L1=15mH,

C=3.2nF So reigniting at Vp, 2 comp.: Ramp:Vs(0).t/[L1+L2]= 1382x10 /[3(352+15)x10]=0.307x10^6 t Oscill.of : f01=1/2 x {[L1+L2]/L1L2C}
Z0={L1L2/[c(L1+L2)]} component2:as Sw closes Ic=[Vs(0)-Vc(0)] /{L1L2/[c(L1+L2)]}

2VpC/L1=104.1 A

Question 2 continued
Eq of Reignition current I t + Im sin0t which at current zero: sin0t=-It/Im , 0=1/LC1=1.443x10^5 Sin 1.443x10^5t=-0.307x10^6t/104.1=2.949x10^3t Sin 1.443x10^5t =-2.949x10^3t
t(s): 70 68 -0.6259 -0.3780 -0.2064 0.2005 67 -0.2409 -0.1376 66.7 -0.1987 -0.1967 66.8 -0.1959 -0.1966

Question 2
t=66.68s I1=0.307x66.68=20.47 A Vp=I1L2/C=20.47x10.488=214.7 KV

Question 3
69 KV, 3ph Cap. N isolated, poles interrupt N.Seq. 160 1st reignite Xc=69

/30=158.7 C=20F,CN=0.02F
Vs-at-reig=692/3cos160

=-52.94 KV
Trap Vol.:
VA(0)=56.34KV

VB(0)=20.62KV,VC(0)= -76.96KV,VCN(0)=28.17KV Vrest=56.34+28.17+52.94=1 37.45 KV

Question 3 continued
Z0=L/CN=5.3x0.2 x100=514 Ip-restrike=137.45/514=0.267KA=267A F0=1/[2LCN]=10^6/{253x2}=15.45 KHz
Voltage swing N=2x137.45=274.9 KV VN=28.7-274.9=-246.73 KV VB=-246.73+20.6=-226.13 KV VC=-246.73+-76.96=-323.69 KV