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Culture Documents
Note: Some of the figures in this presentation have been taken from reliable websites in the internet and te tbooks!
Bioelectric Signals
Bioelectrical potential is a result of electrochemical activity across the membrane of the cell. Bioelectrical signals are generated by excitable cells such as nervous, muscular, and glandular cells. The resting potential of the cell is -40 to - 0 m! relative to the outside and "#0 m! during action potential. !olume conductor electric field is an electric field generated by many excitable cells of the specific organ such as the heart. Typical types of bioelectric signals $lectrocardiogram %$&', $(') $lectroencephalogram %$$') $lectromyogram %$*') $lectroretinogram %$+')
Bioelectric Signals
,- latent period. transmission time from stimulus to recording site. /otential inside cells -40 to - 0 m! relative to the outside. &ell membrane is lipoprotein complex that is impermeable to intracellular protein and other organic anions %0-)
Sodium-/otassium /ump
(eeping the cell at resting state re4uires active transport of ionic species against their normal electrochemical gradients. Sodium-potassium pump is an active transport that transports 1a " out of the cell and (" into the cell in ration 51a"-6(" $nergy for the pump is provided by a cellular energy adenosine triphosphate %0T/)
2.5 mmol/liter of K+ 2K+ + + + + ! ! ! ! 140 mmol/liter of K+ %&a+ Electric Field
External media
Internal media
Exam'le 4.1
For t(e frog skeletal muscle) t*'ical +alues for t(e intracellular and extracellular concentrations for t(e ma,or ion s'ecies -in millimoles 'er liter. are as follo/s. 0'ecies &a+ K+ l! Intracellular 12 155 4 Extracellular 145 4 120
1ssuming room tem'erature -20 o . and t*'ical +alues of 'ermeabilit* coefficient for t(e frog skeletal muscle -2&a $ 2310!4 cm/s) 2k $ 2310!5 cm/s) and 2 l $ 4310!5 cm/s.) calculate t(e e6uilibrium resting 'otential for t(is membrane) using t(e 7oldman e6uation.
1ction 2otential
Bf stimulus depolari9e the cell such that !cell C !threshold an action potential is generated.
External media 2.5 mmol/liter of K+ &a+ Electric Field + + + ! ! ! Internal media 140 mmol/liter of K+
K+ Electric Field ! ! ! + + +
1ction 2otential
Absolute refractory period- membrane can not respond to any stimulus. Relative refractory period- membrane can respond to intense stimulus.
1ction 2otential
0ction potential travel at one direction.
$xternal medium " " " " " " "" "" "" "" " "" 0ctive region "" "" " "" " " " " " " "" "" +esting +epolari9ed membrane membrane Eirection of Eepolari9ed propagation membrane ,ocal closed %solenoidal) lines of current floD " " " " " " 0xon " " " " " "
/eriaxonal space
*yelin sheath
SchDann &ell
1ode of +anvier
*yelination reduces lea@age currents and improve transmission rate by a factor of approximately 60.
"iagram of network e#uivalent $ir$uit of a small length %z& of an unm'elinated nerve fiber or a skeletal mus$le fiber 8(e membrane 'ro'er is c(aracteri9ed b* s'ecific membrane ca'acitance Cm -F/cm2. and s'ecific membrane conductances g&a) gK) and g l in m0/cm2 -millisiemens/cm2.. :ere an a+erage s'ecific leakage conductance is included t(at corres'onds to ionic current from sources ot(er t(an &a+ and K+ -for exam'le) l!.. 8(is term is usuall* neglected. 8(e cell c*to'lasm is considered sim'l* resisti+e) as is t(e external bat(ing medium; t(ese media ma* t(us be c(aracteri9ed b* t(e resistance 'er unit lengt( ri and ro -/cm.) res'ecti+el*. :ere im is t(e transmembrane current 'er unit lengt( -1/cm.) and i and o are t(e internal and external 'otentials at 'oint z) res'ecti+el*.
(igure 4!) Extracellular field 'otentials -a+erage of 124 res'onses. /ere recorded at t(e surface of an acti+e -1!mm!diameter. frog sciatic ner+e in an extensi+e +olume conductor. 8(e 'otential /as recorded /it( -a. bot( motor and sensor* com'onents excited -Sm + Ss.) -b. onl* motor ner+e com'onents excited -Sm.) and -c. onl* sensor* ner+e com'onents excited -Ss..
%(eedba$k&
Sc ematic diagram of a muscle!lengt control system for a perip eral muscle "biceps# %a) 0natomical diagram of limb system, shoDing interconnections. %b) Bloc@ diagram of control system.
@unctional 8ransmission
Synapses- intercommunicating lin@s betDeen neurons $euromuscular %unctions- communicating lin@s betDeen neurons and muscle fibers at end-plate region. 1euromuscular ?unction %60nm thic@ness) release neurotransmitter substance 0cetylcholine %0ch) Time delay due to ?unction is 0.2 to 3 msec Excitation-contraction time delay due to muscle contraction *uscle end-plate region
1t (ig( stimulation rates) t(e mec(anical res'onse fuse into one continuous contraction called a tetanus -mec(anical res'onse summates..
1euron
&euromuscular ,unction
Electroneurogram -E&7.
Aecording t(e field 'otential of an excited ner+e. Neural field potential is generated b' ! 0ensor* com'onent ! ?otor com'onent *arameters for diagnosing peripheral nerve disorder ! onduction +elocit* ! Batenc* ! (aracteristic of field 'otentials e+oked in muscle su''lied b* t(e stimulated ner+e -tem'oral dis'ersion. 1m'litude of field 'otentials of ner+e fibers C extracellular 'otentials from muscle fibers.
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R *uscle
+eference
S6 V(t) S3 L3 6 ms 3 m! V ( t ) L6 t
D !elocity . u = L3 L6
(igure 4!+ ?easurement of neural conduction +elocit* +ia measurement of latenc* of e+oked electrical res'onse in muscle. 8(e ner+e /as stimulated at t/o different sites a kno/n distance D a'art.
Bo/ intensit* stimulus stimulate onl* t(e large sensor* fibers t(at conduct to/ard t(e &0. &o ? /a+e
Electrom*ogram -E?7.
0keletal muscle is organi9ed functionall* on t(e basis of t(e single motor unit -0?D.. 0?D is t(e smallest unit t(at can be acti+ated b* a +olitional effort /(ere all muscle fibers are acti+ated s*nc(ronousl*. 0?D ma* contain 10 to 2000 muscle fibers) de'ending on t(e location of t(e muscle. (a$tors for mus$le var'ing strength 1. &umber of muscle fibers contracting /it(in a muscle 2. 8ension de+elo'ed b* eac( contracting fiber
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(igure 4!/0 "iagram of a single motor unit -0?D.) /(ic( consists of a single motoneuron and t(e grou' of skeletal muscle fibers t(at it inner+ates. Bengt( transducers Emuscle s'indles) Figure 4.5-a.F in t(e muscle acti+ate sensor* ner+e fibers /(ose cell bodies are located in t(e dorsal root ganglion. 8(ese bi'olar neurons send axonal 'ro,ections to t(e s'inal cord t(at di+ide into a descending and an ascending branc(. 8(e descending branc( enters into a sim'le reflex arc /it( t(e motor neuron) /(ile t(e ascending branc( con+e*s information regarding current muscle lengt( to (ig(er centers in t(e &0 +ia ascending ner+e fiber tracts in t(e s'inal cord and brain stem. 8(ese ascending 'at(/a*s are discussed in 0ection 4.4.
Electrom*ogram -E?7.
(ield potential of the a$tive fibers of an S12 1! tri'(asic form 2! duration %!15 msec %! disc(arge rate +aries from 5 to %0 'er second 4! 1m'litude range from 20 to 2000 < 0urface electrode record field 'otential of surface muscles and o+er a /ide area. ?ono'olar and bi'olar insertion!t*'e needle electrode can be used to record 0?D field 'otentials at different locations. 8(e s(a'e of 0?D 'otential is considerabl* modified b* disease suc( as 'artial dener+ation.
(igure 4!// ?otor unit action 'otentials from normal dorsal interosseus muscle during 'rogressi+el* more 'o/erful contractions. In t(e interference 'attern -c .) indi+idual units can no longer be clearl* distinguis(ed. -d. Interference 'attern during +er* strong muscular contraction. 8ime scale is 10 ms 'er dot.
Electroretinogram -EA7.
$+' is a recording of the temporal se4uence of changes in potential in the retina Dhen stimulated Dith a brief flash of light.
3#ueous humor
0 transparent contact lens contains one electrode and the reference electrode can be placed on the right temple.
Electroretinogram -EA7.
1g/1g l electrode im'eded in a s'ecial contact lens.
8(ere are more '(otorece'tors t(an ganglion cells so t(ere is a con+ergence 'attern. ?an* '(otorece'tors terminate into one bi'olar cell and man* bi'olar cells terminate into one ganglion cell. 8(e con+ergence rate is greater at 'eri'(eral 'arts of t(e retina t(an at t(e fo+ea. Aod -10 million. is for +ision in dim lig(t and cone -% million. is for color +ision in brig(ter lig(t.
Electroretinogram -EA7.
8(e a-wave) sometimes called t(e Glate rece'tor 'otential)G reflects t(e general '(*siological (ealt( of t(e '(otorece'tors in t(e outer retina. In contrast) t(e b! /a+e reflects t(e (ealt( of t(e inner la*ers of t(e retina) including t(e H& bi'olar cells and t(e ?uller cells -?iller and "o/ling) 1IJ0.. 8/o ot(er /a+eforms t(at are sometimes recorded in t(e clinic are t(e c!/a+e originating in t(e 'igment e'it(elium -?armor and :ock) 1I42. and t(e d!/a+e indicating acti+it* of t(e HFF bi'olar cells -see Figure %..
C# C#
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Electro!Hculogram -EH7.
$F' is the recording of the corneal-retinal potential to determine the eye movement. By placing tDo electrodes to the left and the right of the eye or above and beloD the eye one can measure the potential betDeen the tDo electrode to determine the hori9ontal or vertical movement of the eye. The potential is 9ero Dhen the ga9e is straight ahead.
Applications
3- Sleep and dream research, 6- $valuating reading ability and visual fatigue.
Kionic E*es
Electrocardiogram -E 7.
Blood %poor with o 'gen& flows from the bod' to the right atrium and then to the right ventri$le! The right ventri$le pump the blood to the lung! Blood %ri$h with o 'gen& flows from the lung into the left atrium and then to the left ventri$le! The left ventri$le pump the blood to the rest of the bod'! "iastole: is t(e resting or filling '(ase -atria c(amber. of t(e (eart c*cle. S'stole: is t(e contractile or 'um'ing '(ase -+entricle c(amber. of t(e (eart c*cle. 8(e electrical e+ents is intrinsic to t(e (eart itself. 0ee /ebsite belo/ for t(e animation of t(e (eart. (tt'>/////.bostonscientific.com/tem'latedata/im'o rts/:8?B/ A?/(eart/index.(tml
Electrocardiogram -E 7.
"istribution of s'eciali9ed conducti+e tissues in t(e atria and +entricles) s(o/ing t(e im'ulse!forming and conduction s*stem of t(e (eart. 8(e r(*t(mic cardiac im'ulse originates in 'acemaking cells in t(e sinoatrial -01. node) located at t(e ,unction of t(e su'erior +ena ca+a and t(e rig(t atrium. &ote t(e t(ree s'eciali9ed 'at(/a*s -anterior) middle) and 'osterior internodal tracts. bet/een t(e 01 and atrio+entricular -1<. nodes. Kac(mannLs bundle -interatrial tract. comes off t(e anterior internodal tract leading to t(e left atrium. 8(e im'ulse 'asses from t(e 01 node in an organi9ed manner t(roug( s'eciali9ed conducting tracts in t(e atria to acti+ate first t(e rig(t and t(en t(e left atrium. 2assage of t(e im'ulse is dela*ed at t(e 1< node before it continues into t(e bundle of :is) t(e rig(t bundle branc() t(e common left bundle branc() t(e anterior and 'osterior di+isions of t(e left bundle branc() and t(e 2urkin,e net/ork. 8(e rig(t bundle branc( runs along t(e rig(t side of t(e inter+entricular se'tum to t(e a'ex of t(e rig(t +entricle before it gi+es off significant branc(es. 8(e left common bundle crosses to t(e left side of t(e se'tum and s'lits into t(e anterior di+ision -/(ic( is t(in and long and goes under t(e aortic +al+e in t(e outflo/ tract to t(e anterolateral 'a'illar* muscle. and t(e 'osterior di+ision -/(ic( is /ide and s(ort and goes to t(e 'osterior 'a'illar* muscle l*ing in t(e inflo/ tract..
S3 node acti+ates first t(e rig(t and t(en t(e left atrium. 34 node dela*s a signal coming from t(e 01 node before it distribute it to t(e Kundle of :is. Bundle of .is and *urkinie fibers acti+ate t(e rig(t and left +entricles 1 t*'ical MA0 am'litude is 1!% m<
8(e P-wave s(o/s t(e (eartLs u''er c(ambers -atria. contracting -de'ol.. 8(e QRS complex s(o/s t(e (eartLs lo/er c(ambers -+entricles. contracting 8(e T-wave s(o/s t(e (eartLs lo/er c(ambers -+entricles. relaxing -re'ol.. 8(e U-wave belie+ed to be due re'olari9ation of +entricular 'a'illar* muscles. P-R inter+al is caused b* dela* in t(e 1< node S-T segment is related to t(e a+erage duration of t(e 'lateau regions of t(e indi+idual +entricular cells.
Steps of a$tion potential of the ventri$ular $ell !2rior to excitation t(e resting 'otential is !I0 m< !Aa'id "e'olari9ation at a rate 150 </s !Initial ra'id re'olari9ation t(at leads to a fixed de'olari9ation le+el for 200 t0 %00 msec !Final re'olari9ation '(ase t(at restore membrane 'otential to t(e resting le+el for t(e remainder of t(e cardiac c*cle
1'ofibrils Centroid Nu$lei
5so$hronous lines of ventri$ular a$tivation of the human heart &ote t(e nearl* closed acti+ation surface at %0 ms into t(e MA0 com'lex.
(igure 4!/6 The ele$tro$ardiograph' problem 2oints 1 and K are arbitrar* obser+ation 'oints on t(e torso) R1K is t(e resistance bet/een t(em) and R81 ) R82 are lum'ed t(oracic medium resistances. 8(e bi'olar E 7 scalar lead +oltage is 1 K) /(ere t(ese +oltages are bot( measured /it( res'ect to an indifferent reference 'otential.
1rr(*t(mias
1 'ortion of t(e m*ocardium sometimes becomes NirritableO and disc(arge inde'endentl*.
(igure 4!/, Normal 7C8 followed b' an e$topi$ beat 1n irritable focus) or ectopic pacemaker) /it(in t(e +entricle or s'eciali9ed conduction s*stem ma* disc(arge) 'roducing an extra beat) or extrasystole) t(at interru'ts t(e normal r(*t(m. 8(is extras*stole is also referred to as a 'remature +entricular contraction -2< ..
(igure 4!/- -a. 2arox*smal tac(*cardia. 1n ecto'ic focus ma* re'etiti+el* disc(arge at a ra'id regular rate for minutes) (ours) or e+en da*s. -K. 1trial flutter. 8(e atria begin a +er* ra'id) 'erfectl* regular Gfla''ingG mo+ement) beating at rates of 200 to %00 beats/min.
(igure 4!90 -a. 1trial fibrillation. 8(e atria sto' t(eir regular beat and begin a feeble) uncoordinated t/itc(ing. oncomitantl*) lo/!am'litude) irregular /a+es a''ear in t(e E 7) as s(o/n. 8(is t*'e of recording can be clearl* distinguis(ed from t(e +er* regular E 7 /a+eform containing atrial flutter. -b. <entricular fibrillation. ?ec(anicall* t(e +entricles t/itc( in a feeble) uncoordinated fas(ion /it( no blood being 'um'ed from t(e (eart. 8(e E 7 is like/ise +er* uncoordinated) as s(o/n
(igure 4!9/ -a. 1ction 'otentials recorded from normal -solid lines. and isc(emic -das(ed lines. m*ocardium in a dog. ontrol is before coronar* occlusion. -b. "uring t(e control 'eriod 'rior to coronar* occlusion) t(ere is no E 7 0!8 segment s(ift; after isc(emia) t(ere is suc( a s(ift.
Electroence'(alogram -EE7.
EE7 is a su'er'osition of t(e +olume!conductor fields 'roduced b* a +ariet* of acti+e neuronal current generators. 8(e t(ree t*'e of electrodes to make t(e measurements are scal') cortical) and de't(.
Superior
Topi$s in this se$tion !7ross anatom* and function of t(e brain !Dltrastructure of t(e cerebral cortex !8(e 'otential fields of single neuron !8*'ical clinical EE7 /a+eform !1bnormal EE7 /a+eform
Anterior
Diencephalon Cerebrum
Posterior
Midbrain
l rsa Do
*edulla oblongata
&audal Bnferior
0natomical relationship of brainstem structures %medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain, and diencephalons) to the cerebrum and cerebellum. 'eneral anatomic directions of orientation in the nervous system are superimposed on the diagram. Gere the terms rostral %toDard heard), caudal %toDard tail), dorsal %bac@), and ventral %front) are associated Dith the brainstemH remaining terms are associated Dith the cerebrum. The terms medial and lateral imply nearness and remoteness respectively, to or from the central midline axis of the brain. %b) 0 simplified diagram of the &1S shoDing a typical general sense pathDay from the periphery %neuron 3) to the brain %neuron 5). 1ote that the axon of the secondary neuron %6) in the pathDay decussates %crosses) to the opposite side of the cord.
Superior Diencephalon
Cerebrum
Anterior
Posterior
l rsa Do
Midbrain
/eripheral nerve 3
Aourth ventricle 6 Spinal cord Thalamus Third ventricle 5 0scending spinothalamic tract
Thalamocortical radiations
%b)
8(e cerebrum) s(o/ing t(e four lobes -frontal) 'arietal) tem'oral) and occi'ital.) t(e lateral and longitudinal fissures) and t(e central sulcus.
8(e cortex recei+es sensor* information from skin) e*es) ears) and ot(er rece'tors. 8(is information is com'ared /it( 're+ious ex'erience and 'roduces mo+ements in res'onse to t(ese stimuli. SER> somatosensor* e+oked res'onse AER> auditor* e+oked res'onse VER> +isual e+oked res'onse
8(e outer la*er -1.5 P 4.0 mm. of t(e cerebrum is called cerebral cortex and consist of a dense collection of ner+e cells t(at a''ear gra* in color -gra* matter.. 8(e dee'er la*er consists of axons -or /(ite matter. and collection of cell bod*.
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Electrogenesis of cortical field 'otentials for a net excitator* in'ut to t(e a'ical dendritic tree of a t*'ical '*ramidal cell. For t(e case of a net in(ibitor* in'ut) 'olarit* is re+ersed and t(e a'ical region becomes a source -+.. urrent flo/ to and from acti+e fluctuating s*na'tic knobs on t(e dendrites 'roduces /a+e!like acti+it*.
EE7 =a+es
Fig 4.2J -a. "ifferent t*'es of normal EE7 /a+es. -b. Ae'lacement of al'(a r(*t(m b* an as*nc(ronous disc(arge /(en 'atient o'ens e*es. -c. Ae'resentati+e abnormal EE7 /a+eforms in different t*'es of e'ile's*.
The ele$troen$ephalographi$ $hanges that o$$ur as a human sub:e$t goes to sleep 8(e calibration marks on t(e rig(t re'resent 50 <.