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Lecture 7
Radiography Testing
Radiography Testing
X-rays are electromagnetic waves with an energy that is 100 100,000 times higher than visible light, Like visible light, X-rays can be scattered and absorbed by materials, X-rays have a much higher energy, these rays tend to pass through materials that block visible light, Xray scan see through objects that are opaque to the naked eye,
Isotopic sources
During irradiation a changes in film structure of silver compounds appears. Latent image is formed, which can be detected only photochemical methods (developing). During develeloping of the film the granules of black silver are formed.
Intensifying screen
Only about 1% of the X-ray and radiation incoming to the film is absorbed by the photographic emulsion. The rest passes through the membrane and is not used. To increase the impact of radiation on the radiographic film intensifying screens are used: metal (usually lead with thicknesses 0.02, 0.05, 0.10, 0.15, 0.20, 0.25, 0.30, 0.40, 0.50mm), fluorescent, fluorometalic.
Intensifying screen
Radiographic film is placed between two intensifying screens. The thickness of the screen is chosen according to the radiation energy. Lead screen
the effect of enhancing the exposure of photographic emulsion is reached by knocking out of the electron, for which emulsion is sensitive, the front screen absorb some rays, are so filters, enhanced contrast of the radiographs because of reduction of scattered radiation, exposure time significantly reduced, the effect of strengthening ca . 5 times
Intensifying screen
Fluoroscent screens contain the phosphor (luminophor) layer (mainly calcium tungstate CaWO4), under the influence of X-ray and phosphor emits visible and ultraviolet light, the effect of the gaining 10 - 100X, worse quality than using radiographic images (compared with lead screens), is the result of the much larger grains than a grain of phosphor films.
radiographic film
radiographic film
Source
Exposure diagrams
Made for each type of films and materials.
The value of exposure is unit: mA min
Voltage [kV]
Exposure diagrams
150 kV, 5 mA, Pb Filter, 1000 mm FFD, Exposure time 330 s Scanned with Primescan 7100 (10 m pixel distance, aperture 21 m, averaged to 50 m acc. to ISO 14096; 16 Bit gray values
SNRnorm 1040
1.0 mm
D2 film, 330 s 0.5 mm SR : 50 m B CRwire: 130 m PE XRD 1620, 300s SRB: 63 m CRwire: 63 m
1.0 mm
1.0 mm
D2 film, 330 s 0.5 mm Hole diam.: 200 m PE XRD1620, 300 s Hole diam.: 50 m 1.0 mm
Radiography Testing
Advantages and disadvantages
References:
1. ASM Handbook Volum 17 - Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control, 5th Edition 1997. 2. Shull P.J. Non Destructive Evaluation. Theory, Techniques and Applications., Marcel Dekker 2001. 3. Lewinska-Romicka A. Badania nieniszczace podstawy defektoskopi, WNT 2001, 4. http://www.ndt-ed.org , 5. http://www.asnt.org 6. http://www.acndt.com 7. http://www.ndt-instruments.com 8. http://engineering.indiabizclub.com 9. http://www.envirocoustics.gr 10. www.ndt.pl/ 11. http://www.ndt.org/
Source of information
The Collaboration for NDT Education www.ndt-ed.org
www.asnt.org
IDL 2001
Flaw Orientation
Radiography has sensitivity limitations when detecting cracks.
Optimum Angle
= easy to
detect
X-rays see a crack as a thickness variation and the larger the variation, the easier the crack is to detect. When the path of the x-rays is not parallel to a crack, the thickness variation is less and the crack may not be visible.
IDL 2001
0o
10o
20o
Radiation Sources
Two of the most commonly used sources of radiation in industrial radiography are x-ray generators and gamma ray sources. Industrial radiography is often subdivided into X-ray Radiography or Gamma Radiography, depending on the source of radiation used.
X-ray Radiography
Unlike gamma rays, x-rays are produced by an X-ray generator system. These systems typically include an X-ray tube head, a high voltage generator, and a control console.
filament much the same as in a light bulb. Current is passed through the filament which heats it. The heat causes electrons to be stripped off. The high voltage causes these free electrons to be pulled toward a target material (usually made of tungsten) located in the anode. The electrons impact against the target. This impact causes an energy exchange which causes x-rays to be created.
Electrons + -
Imaging Modalities
Several different imaging methods are available to display the final image in industrial radiography:
Film Radiography Real Time Radiography Computed Tomography (CT) Digital Radiography (DR) Computed Radiography (CR)
Light, just like xrays and gamma rays, can expose film. Film is loaded in a light proof cassette in a darkroom. This cassette is then placed on the specimen opposite the source of radiation. Film is often placed between screens to intensify radiation.
developed in a darkroom. The process is very similar to photographic film development. Film processing can either be performed manually in open tanks or in an automatic processor.
Digital Radiography
Computed Radiography
Computed Radiography (CR) is a digital imaging process that uses a special imaging plate which employs storage phosphors.
Phosphor Grains
Substrate
The imaging plate is read electronically and erased for reuse in a special scanner system.
Photo-multiplier Tube
110010010010110
Real-Time Radiography
Real-Time Radiography (RTR) is a term used to describe a
form of radiography that allows electronic images to be captured and viewed in real time. Because image acquisition is almost instantaneous, X-ray images can be viewed as the part is moved and rotated. Manipulating the part can be advantageous for several reasons:
It may be possible to image the entire component with one exposure. Viewing the internal structure of the part from different angular prospectives can provide additional data for analysis. Time of inspection can often be reduced.
Camera
(optional)
Direct Radiography
Direct radiography (DR) is a form of
real-time radiography that uses a special flat panel detector. penetrating radiation passing through the test specimen into minute electrical charges. electronic capacitors. The capacitors form an electrical charge pattern image of the specimen. into a pixel which forms the digital image.
Computed Tomography
Computed Tomography (CT) uses a real-time inspection system employing a sample positioning system and special software.
Real-Time Captures
Image Quality
Image quality is critical for accurate assessment of a test
specimens integrity. Various tools called Image Quality Indicators (IQIs) are used for this purpose. There are many different designs of IQIs. Some contain artificial holes of varying size drilled in metal plaques while others are manufactured from wires of differing diameters mounted next to one another.
on or next to a test specimen. Quality typically being determined based on the smallest hole or wire diameter that is reproduced on the image.
Radiation Safety
Use of radiation sources in industrial radiography is heavily regulated by state and federal organizations due to potential public and personal risks.
Radiographic Images
Radiographic Images
Can you determine what object was radiographed in this and the next three slides?
Radiographic Images
Radiographic Images
Radiographic Images