2 Motivation

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.
Organizational Behavior:
Motivation
Essence of Life


Motivation Defined
Implications Associated with This Definition
Behavior is purposive rather than random
- People exhibit both positive (work done on time) and negative (arrive late
for work) behavior for a reason
Motivation arouses people to do something
- People are unlikely to change a behavior or do something different unless
they are motivated to do so
Motivation causes people to focus on a desired end-result or goal
Motivation fuels the persistence needed to exhibit sustained effort on a
task
Motivation: Psychological processes that cause the arousal
direction, and persistence of voluntary actions that are goal directed.

Types of Motives
1- Primary Motives
Physiological, Unlearned

2- General Motives
Not Physiological, Unlearned

3- Secondary Motives
Learned, Psychological

Content vs. Process Motivation
Theories
Content theories
explain why people have different needs at different times.
Implications of Content Theories:
1. Match rewards with employee needs
2. Offer employees a choice of rewards
3. people have different needs at different times
4. Limit use of financial rewards as a source of motivation
Process theories
describe the processes through which needs are translated into
behavior


The Motivation Process
Unsatisfied
Need
Tension
Search
Behavior
Drives
Satisfied
Need
Reduction
of Tension

Maslows
Hierarchy
of Needs
Self-
actualization
Esteem
Social
Safety
Physiological

Needs Hierarchy
Theory
Needs Hierarchy Theory
Self-
Actualization
Esteem
Belongingness
Safety
Physiological
Maslow arranged five needs
in a hierarchy
Satisfaction-progression
process
People who experience self-
actualization desire more
rather than less of this need

ERG
Theory
Needs Hierarchy
Theory
ERG Theory
Self-
Actualization
Esteem
Belongingness
Safety
Physiological
Growth
Relatedness
Existence
Alderfers model has
three sets of needs
Adds frustration-
regression process
to Maslows model

Content Theories of Motivation
Self-
Actualization
Esteem
Belongingness
Safety
Physiological
Growth
Relatedness
Existence
Motivator--Hygiene
Theory
Motivators
Hygienes
Need for
Achievement
Need for
Power
Need for
Affiliation
McClellands
Learned Needs
ERG
Theory
Needs Hierarchy
Theory

Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory
Hygiene Factors Motivational Factors
Quality of supervision
Rate of pay
Company policies
Working conditions
Relations with others
Job security
Career Advancement
Personal growth
Recognition
Responsibility
Achievement
High High Job Dissatisfaction Job Satisfaction
0

Herzbergs Motivator-Hygiene Model

No Satisfaction Satisfaction
Jobs that do not Jobs offering
offer achievement achievement,
recognition, recognition,
stimulating work, stimulating work,
responsibility, responsibility,
and advancement. and advancement.
Motivators

Dissatisfaction No Dissatisfaction
Jobs with poor Jobs with good
company policies, company policies,
and administration, and administration,
technical supervision technical supervision,
salary, interpersonal salary, interpersonal
relationships with relationships with
supervisors, and supervisors, and
working conditions. working conditions.
Hygiene Factors

David C. McClelland and
Achievement Needs
Characteristics of High Achievers
1. Moderate Risk Taking
2. Need for Immediate Feedback
3. Satisfaction with Accomplishments
4. Preoccupation with the Task

Theory X
Workers
Dislike Work
Avoid Responsibility
Little Ambition
Theory Y
Workers
Enjoy Work
Accept Responsibility
Self-Directed

Specific Goals
Goal-Setting
Theory
Challenging
Goals
Goals and
Participation

Specific
Relevant
Challenging
Task
Effort
Task
Performance
Effective Goal Setting
Challenging
Participation
Commitment

Reinforcement Theory
Consequences
Rewards
No Rewards
Punishment
Behavior

Perceived
Ratio Comparison
a
Employees
Assessment
Outcomes A
Inputs A
Outcomes A
Inputs A
Outcomes A
Inputs A
Outcomes B
Inputs B
Outcomes B
Inputs B
Outcomes B
Inputs B
<
=
>
Inequity (Under-Rewarded)
Equity
Inequity (Over-Rewarded)
a
Person A is the employee, and person B is a relevant other or referent.
Equity Theory

Elements of Equity Theory
Outcome/input ratio
inputs -- what employee contributes (e.g. skill)
outcomes -- what employees receive (e.g. pay)
Comparison other
person/people we compare ratio with
not easily identifiable
Equity evaluation
compare outcome/input ratio with
the comparison other

Negative and Positive Inequity
A. An Equitable Situation
Self
Other
$2
1 hour

= $2 per hour
$4
2 hours

= $2 per hour

Negative and Positive Inequity (cont)
$2
1 hour

= $2 per hour
$3
1 hour

= $3 per hour
B. Negative Inequity
Self
Other

Negative and Positive Inequity (cont)
$2
1 hours

= $1 per hour
C. Positive Inequity
$3
1 hour

= $3 per hour
Self
Other

Consequences of Inequity
1. Change inputs
2. Change outcomes
3. Change perceptions
4. Leave the field
5. Act on the comparison other
6. Change the comparison other
Equity Sensitivity
Benevolents
Tolerant of being underrewarded
Equity Sensitives
Want ratio to be equal to the comparison other
Entitleds
Prefer receiving proportionately more than others


Organizational Justice
Distributive Justice:
The perceived fairness of how resources and rewards are
distributed.
Procedural Justice:
The perceived fairness of the process and procedures used to
make allocation decisions.
Interactional Justice:
The perceived fairness of the decision makers behavior in the
process of decision making.

E-to-P
Expectancy
P-to-O
Expectancy
Outcomes
& Valences
Individual
Effort
Individual
Performance
Expectancy Theory of Motivation
3. Rewards-personal goals relationship
1. Effort-performance relationship
2. Performance-rewards relationship
Personal
Goals
Organizational
Rewards
1
2
Outcome 1
+ or -
Outcome 3
+ or -
Outcome 2
+ or -
3

Vrooms Expectancy Theory Concepts
Expectancy: Belief that effort leads to a specific level of performance
Instrumentality: A performance outcome perception.
Valence: The Value of a reward or outcome

Managerial Implications of Expectancy
Theory
Determine the outcomes.
Identify good performance so appropriate behaviors can be rewarded.
Make sure employees can achieve targeted performance levels.
Link desired outcomes to targeted levels of performance.
Make sure changes in outcomes are large enough to motivate high effort.
Monitor the reward system for inequities.

Expectancy Theory in Practice:
Increasing the E-to-P expectancy
training, selection, resources, clarify roles, provide coaching and feedback
Increasing the P-to-O expectancy
Measure performance accurately, explain how rewards are based on past
performance
Increasing outcome valences
Use valued rewards, individualize rewards, minimize countervalent outcomes


Organizational Implications of Expectancy Theory
Reward people for desired performance, and do not
keep pay decisions secret.
Design challenging jobs.
Tie some rewards to group accomplishments to build
teamwork and encourage cooperation.
Reward managers for creating, monitoring, and
maintaining expectancies, instrumentalities, and
outcomes that lead to high effort and goal attainment.
Monitor employee motivation through interviews or
anonymous questionnaires.
Accommodate individual differences by building
flexibility into the motivation program.

Goals
Goal: What an individual is trying to accomplish.
Encouraging the
development of goal-
attainment strategies
or action plans
Increasing
ones persistence
Regulating
ones effort
Directing
ones attention
Goals
motivate the
individual
by...
Task
performance

Insights from Goal-Setting Research
Difficult Goals Lead to Higher Performance.
- Easy goals produce low effort because the goal is too easy
to achieve.
- Impossible goals ultimately lead to lower performance
because people begin to experience failure.
Specific Difficult Goals Lead to Higher Performance for Simple Rather Than Complex
Tasks.
- Goal specificity pertains to the quantifiability of a goal.
- Specific difficult goals impair performance on novel, complex
tasks when employees do not have clear strategies for
solving these types of problems.
Feedback Enhances The Effect of Specific, Difficult Goals.
- Goals and feedback should be used together.
Participative Goals, Assigned Goals, and Self-Set Goals Are Equally Effective.
- Managers should set goals by using a contingency approach.
Different methods work in different situations.
Goal Commitment and Monetary Incentives Affect Goal-Setting Outcomes.
- Difficult goals lead to higher performance when employees
are committed to their goals.
- Difficult goals lead to lower performance when employees
are not committed to their goals.
- Goal based incentives can lead to negative outcomes for
employees in complex, interdependent jobs requiring
cooperation.
* Employees may not help each other.
* Quality may suffer as employees pursue quantity goals.
* Commitment to difficult goals may suffer.


Guidelines for Writing SMART
Goals
Specific
Measurable
Attainable
Results oriented
Time bound

Area of
Optimal
Goal
Difficulty
High
T
a
s
k

P
e
r
f
o
r
m
a
n
c
e

Low Moderate Challenging Impossible
Effect of Goal Difficulty on
Performance
Goal Difficulty

Approaches to Job Design
2. Motivational Approaches these techniques (job enlargement, job
rotation, job enrichment, and job characteristics) attempt to improve
employees affective and attitudinal reactions and behavioral outcomes.
3. Biological and Perceptual- Motor Approaches Biological techniques
focus on reducing employees physical strain, effort, fatigue, and health
complaints. The Perceptual-Motor Approach emphasizes the reliability of work
outcomes by examining error rates, accidents, and workers feedback about
facilities and equipment.
1. The Mechanistic Approach focuses on identifying the most efficient way
to perform a job. Employees are trained and rewarded to perform their jobs
accordingly.

The Job Characteristics Model
Outcomes
*High internal
work
motivation
*High growth
satisfaction
*High general
job satisfaction
*High work
effectiveness
Critical
psychological
states
*Experienced
meaningfulness of the
work
*Experienced
responsibility for
outcomes of the work
*Knowledge of the actual
results of the work
activities
Core job
characteristics
*Skill variety
*Task identity
*Task
significance

*Autonomy
*Feedback from
job
Moderators
1. Knowledge and skill
2. Growth need strength
3. Context satisfactions

Skills and Best Practices: Applying
the Job Characteristics Model
1. Diagnose the level of employee motivation and
job. satisfaction and consider redesigning jobs
when motivation ranges from low to moderate.
2. Determine whether job redesign is appropriate in a
given context.
3. Redesign jobs by including employees input.

How Satisfied are You with Your Job?
What is your level of job satisfaction with recognition,
compensation, and supervision?
Is satisfaction across various aspects of your job
equally important? Explain.
Job satisfaction is an effective or emotional response toward
various facets of ones job.

Causes of Job Satisfaction
Need Fulfillment: Satisfaction is based on the extent to
which a job satisfies a persons needs.
Discrepancies: Satisfaction is determined by the extent to
which an individual receives what he or she expects from a
job.
Value Attainment: Satisfaction results from the extent to
which a job allows fulfillment of ones work values.
Equity: Satisfaction is a function of how fairly an individual
is treated at work.
Trait/Genetic Components: Satisfaction is partly a
function of personal traits and genetic factors.

Correlates of Job Satisfaction
Variables Related Direction of Strength of
with Satisfaction Relationship Relationship
Motivation Positive Moderate
Job Involvement Positive Moderate
Organizational Citizenship behavior Positive Moderate
Organizational Commitment Positive Strong
Absenteeism Negative Weak
Tardiness Negative Weak
Turnover Negative Moderate
Heart Disease Negative Moderate
Perceived Stress Negative Strong
Pro-Union Voting Negative Moderate
Job Performance Positive Weak
Life Satisfaction Positive Moderate
Mental Health Positive Moderate

Organizational
Objectives
Divisional
Objectives
Departmental
Objectives
Individual
Objectives
What Is Management by Objectives?

Key Elements of MBO
Goal
Specificity
Explicit
Time Period
Participation in
Decision Making
Performance
Feedback

Linking MBO and
Goal-Setting Theory
Participation
in Goal Setting
Specificity
of Goals
Feedback
on Performance
Difficulty
of Goals

Employee Recognition
Programs
Recognition and
Reinforcement
Defining
Recognition
Recognition Plans
in Practice

Employee Involvement
Programs
Participative
Management
Representative
Participation
Employee
Stock Ownership
Quality
Circles

Piece
Rate
Variable Pay Plans
Profit
Sharing
Gainsharing
Bonus
Plans

Skill-Based Pay Plans
Promotes Flexibility
Facilitates Communication
Satisfies Ambitious Workers
Topping Out
Obsolescence of Skills
Performance versus Skills
Advantages
Disadvantages

Hierarchy
of Needs
Skill-Based Plans and
Motivation Theories
Need for
Achievement
Equity Theory
Reinforcement
Theory

Money and employee needs
affects several needs, not just existence needs
Money and attitudes
Money ethic -- not evil, represents success, should be
budgeted carefully
Money and self-identity
Influences our self-perceptions
Evidence that men more than women identify with
money
The Meaning of Money
..

Membership and seniority
Job status
Competencies
Performance
Types of Rewards in the Workplace
..

Membership/Seniority Based Rewards
Fixed wages, seniority increases
Advantages
guaranteed wages may attract job applicants
seniority-based rewards reduce turnover
Disadvantages
doesnt motivate job performance
discourages poor performers from leaving
may act as golden handcuffs

Job Status-Based Rewards
Includes job evaluation and status perks
Advantages:
job evaluation tries to maintain pay equity
motivates competition for promotions
Disadvantages:
employees exaggerate duties, hoard resources
creates psychological distance across hierarchy
Inconsistent with flatter organizations

Competency-Based Rewards
Pay increases with competencies acquired or
demonstrated
Skill-based pay
Pay increases with skill modules learned
Advantages
More flexible work force, better quality, consistent
with employability
Disadvantages
Potentially subjective, higher training costs

Organizational
rewards
Stock ownership
Stock options
Profit sharing
Team
rewards
Gainsharing
Bonuses
Performance-Based Rewards
Individual
rewards
Piece rate
Commissions
Royalties
Merit pay


Problems with Performance Rewards
Shift attention away from motivation job itself to
extrinsic rewards
Create a psychological distance with reward
giver
Discourage risk taking
Used as quick fixes

Improving Reward Effectiveness
Link rewards to performance
Ensure rewards are relevant
Team rewards for interdependent jobs
Ensure rewards are valued
Beware of unintended consequences
..

Job Design
Assigning tasks to a job, including the
interdependency of those tasks with other jobs
Technology influences, but does not determine,
job design
Employability affects job design
.

Advantages Disadvantages
Evaluating Job Specialization
Less time changing
tasks
Lower training costs
Job mastered quickly
Better person-job
matching
Job boredom
Discontentment
pay
Lower quality
Lower motivation

Work
motivation

Growth
satisfaction

General
satisfaction

Work
effectiveness
Job Characteristics Model
Feedback
from job
Knowledge
of results
Skill variety
Task identity
Task significance
Meaningfulness
Autonomy Responsibility
Individual
differences
Critical
Psychological
States
Core Job
Characteristics
Outcomes

Job Enlargement
Job Rotation
Job 1
Operate Camera
Job 2
Operate Sound
Job 3
Report Story
Job 1

Operate Camera
Operate Sound
Report Story
Job 2

Operate Camera
Operate Sound
Report Story
Job 3

Operate Camera
Operate Sound
Report Story
Job Rotation vs. Job Enlargement

Job Enrichment Strategies
Empowering employees
giving employees more autonomy
feeling of control and self-efficacy
Forming natural work units
completing an entire task
assigning employees to specific clients
Establishing client relationships
employees put in direct contact with clients

Obstacles to Job Design
Difficult to accurately measure job
characteristics
Resistance to change
skilled workers
labor union leaders
supervisors
Problem finding optimal level of enrichment and
specialization

A Job Performance Model of Motivation
Ability, Job knowledge
Dispositions & Traits
Emotions, Moods, &Affect
Beliefs & Values
Individual Inputs
Physical Environment
Task Design
Rewards & Reinforcement
Supervisory Support &
Coaching
Social Norms
Organizational Culture
Job Context
Arousal Attention Intensity
& &
Direction Persistence
Motivational Processes
Motivated
Behaviors
Skills
Enable, Limit

A Job Performance Model of Motivation (cont.)
Individual
Inputs
Job
Context
Motivational
Processes
Focus: Direction, What we do
Intensity: Effort, how hard
we try
Quality: Task strategies, the
way we do it
Duration: Persistence, how
long we stick to it
Skills
Enable, Limit
Performance
Motivated Behaviors

2 Motivation

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Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of Tehran.

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