Lecture Notes 13

Copyright R.
Janow Fall 2013

Electricity and Magnetism
Lecture 13 - Physics 121
Electromagnetic Oscillations in LC & LCR Circuits,
Y&F Chapter 30, Sec. 5 - 6
Alternating Current Circuits,
Y&F Chapter 31, Sec. 1 - 2
Summary: RC and LC circuits
Mechanical Harmonic Oscillator
LC Circuit Oscillations
Damped Oscillations in an LCR Circuit
AC Circuits, Phasors, Forced Oscillations
Phase Relations for Current and Voltage in Simple
Resistive, Capacitive, Inductive Circuits.
Summary
Copyright R. Janow Fall 2013
Recap: LC and RC circuits with constant EMF -
Time dependent effects
R
i e i ) t ( i
0
/ t
L
E
=
t
0
( )
R
i e i ) t ( i
inf
/ t
inf
L
E
=
t
1

dt
di
L ) t ( =
L
E
constant time inductive
L
L/R t
( ) E C Q e Q ) t ( Q
inf
RC / t
inf
=
1
C
) t ( Q
) t ( V
c
=
constant time capacitive
C
RC t
E C Q e Q ) t ( Q
0
RC / t
=
0
R
C
E
R
L
E
Growth Phase
Decay Phase
Now LCR in same circuit, time varying EMF > New effects
C
R
L
R
L
C
External AC can drive circuit, frequency e
D
=2tf
New behavior: resonant oscillation in LC circuit
2 1/
res
) LC (
= e
Generalized resistances: reactances, impedance
] Ohms [
L C
L ) C /( R e X e X 1
( ) | | R Z
/
C L
2 1
2 2
X X +
New behavior: damped oscillation in LCR circuit
Recall: Resonant mechanical oscillations
Definition of
an oscillating
system:
Periodic, repetitive behavior
System state ( t ) = state( t + T ) = = state( t + NT )
T = period = time to complete one complete cycle
State can mean: position and velocity, electric and magnetic fields,
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
Li U mv K
C
Q
U kx U
L block C el
= = = =
LC / m / k 1/C k L m i v Q x 1
2
0
2
0
= e = e
Substitutions can convert mechanical to LC equations:
Energy oscillates between 100% kinetic and 100% potential: K
max
= U
max
With solutions like this...
) t cos( x ) t ( x | + e =
0 0
Systems that oscillate
obey equations like this...
k/m x
dt
x d
e e =
0
2
0 2
2
What oscillates for a spring in SHM? position & velocity, spring force,
Mechanical example: Spring oscillator (simple harmonic motion)
2 2
2
1
2
1
kx mv U K E sp
block mech
constant + = + = =
ma kx F : force restoring Law s Hooke' = =
no friction
0 =
dt
dx
v

dt
dx
kx
dt
dx
dt
x d
m
dt
dE
mech
+ = =
2
2
0
OR
Electrical Oscillations in an LC circuit, zero resistance
a
L
C
E
+
b
Charge capacitor fully to Q
0
=CE then switch to b

Kirchoff loop equation: 0 - V
L C
= E
2
2
dt
Q d
L
dt
di
L
C
Q
V
L
and
C
= = = E
Substitute:
Peaks of current and charge are out of phase by 90
0

) t ( Q
LC

dt
) t ( Q d 1
2
2
=
An oscillator
equation where
solution: E C Q ) t cos( Q ) t ( Q
0
| + e =
0 0
Q i ) t sin( i
dt
) t ( dQ
) t ( i
0 0 0 0 0
e | + e = =
0
e 1/LC
What oscillates? Charge, current, B & E fields, U
B
, U
E
R / L , RC

L c
where
L c
= t = t
t t
= e
1
2
0
) t ( cos
C
Q

C
) t ( Q
U
E
| + e = =
0
2
2
0
2
2 2
) t ( sin
Li

) t ( Li
U
B
| + e = =
0
2
2
0
2
2 2
0 0
B E
U U =
0 0
E B
U
C
Q

LC
1

LQ

Q L

Li
U = =
e
=
2 2 2 2
2
0
2
0
2
0
2
0
2
0
Show: Total potential energy is constant
tot
U is constant
Peak Values
Are Equal
) t ( U (t) U U
B E tot
+ =
Details: use energy conservation to deduce oscillations
The total energy:
C 2
) t ( Q
) t ( Li
2
1
U U U
2
2
E B
+ = + =
dt
dQ
C
Q

dt
di
Li
dt
dU
+ = = 0
It is constant so:
dt
dQ
i
2
2
dt
Q d
dt
di
= The definitions and imply that: )
C
Q
dt
Q d
L (
dt
dQ
0
2
2
= +
Oscillator solution: ) t cos( Q Q | + e =
0 0
) t sin( Q
dt
dQ
| + e e =
0 0 0
) t cos( Q
dt
Q d
| + e e =
0
2
0 0
2
2
0
1
2
0 0 0 2
2
=
(
+ e | + e = +
LC
) t cos( Q
LC
Q
dt
Q d

LC

1
0
= e
To evaluate e
0
: plug the first and second derivatives of the solution into the
differential equation.
The resonant oscillation frequency e
0
is:
0 =
dt
dQ
Either (no current ever flows) or:
LC
Q
dt
Q d
0
2
2
= +
oscillator
equation
13 1: What do you think will happen to the oscillations in a true
LC circuit (versus a real circuit) over a long time?

A.They will stop after one complete cycle.
B.They will continue forever.
C.They will continue for awhile, and then suddenly stop.
D.They will continue for awhile, but eventually die away.
E.There is not enough information to tell what will happen.
Oscillations Forever?
Potential Energy alternates between all electrostatic and
all magnetic two reversals per period t
C is fully charged twice each
cycle (opposite polarity)
Example:
A 4 F capacitor is charged to E = 5.0 V, and
then discharged through a 0.3 Henry
inductance in an LC circuit
Use preceding solutions with | = 0

C L
b) Find the maximum (peak) current (differentiate Q(t) )
mA 18 913 x 5 x
6
10 x 4 C Q i
t) ( sin Q - ) t cos(
dt
d
Q
dt
dQ
) t ( i
0 0 0 max
0 0 0 0 0 0
=
= e = e =
e e = e = =
E
E C Q
) t cos( Q ) t ( Q
0
0 0
=
e =
a) Find the oscillation period and frequency f = / 2
rad/s 913
1
LC
1
)
6
10 x 4 )( 3 . 0 (
0
=
= =
ms 9 . 6
0
2
f
1
Period T =
e
= = =
Hz 145 2 f
0
= =
c) When does the first current maximum occur? When |sin(e
0
t)| = 1
Maxima of Q(t): All energy is in E field
Maxima of i(t): All energy is in B field
Current maxima at T/4, 3T/4, (2n+1)T/4

First One at:

Others at:

ements ms incr .4 3
ms 7 . 1
4
T
=
Example
a) Find the voltage across the capacitor in the circuit as a function of time.
L = 30 mH, C = 100 F
The capacitor is charged to Q
0
= 0.001 Coul. at time t = 0.

The resonant frequency is:

The voltage across the capacitor has the same
time dependence as the charge:

At time t = 0, Q = Q
0
, so choose phase angle | = 0.
C
) t cos( Q
C
) t ( Q
) t ( V
0 0
C
| + e
= =
rad/s 4 . 577
) F 10 )( H 10 3 (
1
LC
1
4 2
0
=
= = e

C
volts ) t cos( ) t cos(
F
C
) t ( V 577 10 577
10
10
4
3
= =
b) What is the expression for the current in the circuit? The current is:

c) How long until the capacitor charge is reversed? That happens every
period, given by:

amps ) t 577 sin( 577 . 0 ) t 577 sin( ) rad/s 577 )( C 10 ( ) t sin( Q
dt
dQ
i
3
0 0 0
= = e e = =
ms 44 . 5
2
T
0
=
e
t
=
13 2: The expressions below could be used to represent the
charge on a capacitor in an LC circuit. Which one has the greatest
maximum current magnitude?

A. Q(t) = 2 sin(5t)
B. Q(t) = 2 cos(4t)
C. Q(t) = 2 cos(4t+t/2)
D. Q(t) = 2 sin(2t)
E. Q(t) = 4 cos(2t)
Which Current is Greatest?

dt
) t ( dQ
i =
) t cos( Q ) t ( Q
0 0
| + e =
13 3: The three LC circuits below have identical inductors and
capacitors. Order the circuits according to their oscillation
frequency in ascending order.

A. I, II, III.
B. II, I, III.
C. III, I, II.
D. III, II, I.
E. II, III, I.
Time needed to discharge the capacitor in LC circuit
T
1/LC
t
= e
2
0

C
1
C
i ser
1
C C
i para
I. II. III.
LCR circuits: Add series resistance
Circuits still oscillate but oscillation is damped
Charge capacitor fully to Q
0
=CE then switch to b
Stored energy decays with time due to resistance

2 2
2 2
) t ( Li
C
) t ( Q
) t ( U (t) U U
B E tot
+ = + =
a
L C
E
+
b
R

t
t -
e
0
Critically damped
2 2
0
2
)
L
R
( =
0 =
'
Underdamped:
2
t
'
Q(t)
2 2
0
2
)
L
R
( >
Overdamped

t
onential exp
d complicate
2 2
0
2
)
L
R
( <
imaginary is
'

Solution is cosine with
exponential decay (weak
or under-damped case)
C Q ) t ' cos( e Q ) t ( Q
0
L / Rt
E | + e =
2
0
Shifted resonant frequency e
can be real or imaginary
| |
2 1 2 2
0
2
/
L) (R / '
Resistance dissipates stored
energy. The power is:
R ) t ( i
dt
dU
tot 2
=
1/LC ) t ( Q
dt
dQ
L
R
dt
) t ( Q d
e = e + +
0
2
0
2
2
0
Oscillator equation results, but
with damping (decay) term
13 4: How does the resonant frequency e
0
for an ideal LC circuit
(no resistance) compare with e for an under-damped circuit whose
resistance cannot be ignored?

A. The resonant frequency for the non-ideal, damped circuit is higher than
for the ideal one (e > e
0
).

B. The resonant frequency for the damped circuit is lower than for the ideal
one (e < e
0
).

C. The resistance in the circuit does not affect the resonant frequency
they are the same (e = e
0
).

D. The damped circuit has an imaginary value of e.
Resonant frequency with damping
| |
2 / 1 2 2
0
L) 2 (R / '
Alternating Current (AC) - EMF
AC is easier to transmit than DC
AC transmission voltage can be changed by using a transformer.
Commercial electric power (home or office) is AC, not DC.
The U.S. AC frequency is 60 Hz. Most other countries use 50 Hz.
Sketch: a crude AC generator.
EMF appears in a rotating a coil of wire in a
magnetic field (Faradays Law)
Slip rings and brushes allow the EMF to be
taken off the coil without twisting the wires.
Generators convert mechanical energy to
electrical energy. Power to rotate the coil
can come from a water or steam turbine,
windmill, or turbojet engine.
) t cos( ) t (
d max ind
e c = c
) t cos( I i
d max
u e =
Outputs are sinusoidal
functions:
u is the phase angle
You might (wrongly) expect u = 0
External AC EMF driving a circuit
Apply external, sinusoidal, instantaneous EMF to load:
t) ( cos (t )
D max
E E =
amplitude
max
E
) t ( cos I i( t )
D max
=
Current in load has same frequency e
D
... but may be retarded or advanced
(relative to E) by phase angle u (due to inertia L and stiffness 1/C).
Current has the same amplitude and phase everywhere in a branch
(t) E
load
i(t)
) t ( ( t )
load
load the across potential The V E =
R
L
C
E
In a Series LCR Circuit:
Everything oscillates at driving frequency e
D

u is zero at resonance circuit acts purely resistively.
At resonance: 1/LC
0 D
= =
Otherwise u is positive (current lags applied EMF)
or negative (current leads applied EMF)

D
= the driving frequency

D
= resonant frequency e
0
, in general
Instantaneous, peak, and average quantities for AC circuits
Instantaneous voltages and currents:

oscillatory, depend on time through argument: et
possibly advanced or retarded relative to each other by phase angles
represented by rotating phasors see below
Peak voltage and current amplitudes are just the coefficients out front
i
max
max
E
Simple time averages of periodic quantities are zero (and useless).
Example: Integrate over a whole number of periods one t is enough (et=2t)
0 t )dt ( cos
1
(t )dt
1

0
D

max
0
av
} }
t t
=
t
=
t
E E E
0 )dt t ( cos
1
(t )dt
1

0
D

max
0
av
} }
t t
= u
t
=
t
i i i
}
t
= u e
0
0 dt ) t cos(
Integrand is odd on a full cycle
) t ( cos i i( t )
D max
u =
t ) ( cos (t )
D max
E E =
RMS Quantities for AC circuits
RMS averages are used the way instantaneous
quantities were in DC circuits:
RMS means root, mean, squared.
| |
2
(t )dt
1

max
2 / 1
0
2
2 / 1
av
2
rms ) t (
E
E E E =
(
t
=
}
t

i
(t )dt i (t ) i i
max
/
/
av
rms
2
1
2 1
0
2
2 1
2
=
(
t
=
(
}
t
}
t
t
= u e
0
2 1
2 / 1 dt ) t ( cos
Integrand is even on a whole cycle
So-called rectified average values are
seldom used in AC circuits:
Integrate |cos(et)| over one full cycle
or cos(wt) over a positive half cycle
max
4 /
4 / 2 /
1
max rav
I
2
| )dt t cos( | I I
}
t
= e =
t +
t t
Prescription: RMS Value = Peak value / Sqrt(2)
Phasor Picture:
Show current and potentials as
vectors all rotating at frequency e
D
The lengths of the vectors are the peak amplitudes.
The measured instantaneous values of i( t ) and E( t )
are projections of the phasors on the x-axis.
phase angle measures when peaks pass

and are independent
t
D
e
Current is the same (phase included) everywhere
in a single (series) branch of any circuit
EMF E(t) applied to the circuit can lead or lag the
current by a phase angle u in the range [-t/2, +t/2]
Use rotating current vector as reference.
max
I
max
E
e
D
t
u
) t ( cos (t )
D max
u + = E E
) t ( os c I i( t )
D max
=
x
y
Series LCR circuit: Relate internal voltage drops to phase of the current
V
R
V
C
V
L
Voltage across R is in phase with the current.
Voltage across C lags the current by 90
0
.
Voltage across L leads the current by 90
0
.
X
L
>X
C
X
C
>X
L
Driven Resistance: AC current i(t) and voltage v
R
(t) in phase
v
R
( t )

i(t)

Voltage drop across R:
t ) ( cos V ) t ( (t ) v
D R R
=
) ( cos I i(t ) t
D
=
0 (t ) v
R
- ) t ( = Kirchoff loop rule:
Current flows through R, causing the voltage drop, with
same time dependence governed by cos(et).

I
V
R
R
=
(definition of
resistance)
Peak current and peak voltage are in
phase in a purely resistive part of a
circuit, rotating at the driving
frequency e
D
R ) t ( i ) t ( v
R
=
The ratio of the AMPLITUDES
V
R
to I is the resistance:
0 = Peaks, zeros, and valleys of v and I coincide
Choose: Then:
Driven Inductance: AC current i(t) lags the voltage v
L
(t) by 90
0

Voltage drop across L
is due to Faraday Law:
) t sin( LI )] t [cos(
dt
d
LI (t ) v
D D D L
e e = e =
0 (t ) v
L

I
V
X
L
L
=
The RATIO of the
AMPLITUDES V
L
to I is the
inductive reactance X
L
:
) ( cos I i(t ) t
D
= Choose:
Then:
v
L
(t)

L

i(t)

dt
i d
L (t ) v
L
=
) 2 / t ( cos t) ( sin
D D
t + = Note:
so...phase angle u = + t/2 for inductor
) 2 / t cos( V (t ) v
D L L
t + e
)
D L
(Ohms L X
Definition:
inductive
reactance
Voltage phasor leads the
current phasor by +t/2 in a
pure inductive part of a
circuit (u positive)
Inductive Reactance
limiting cases
e 0: Zero reactance.
Inductance acts like a wire.
e infinity: Infinite reactance.
Inductance acts like a broken wire.
Driven Capacitance: AC current i(t) leads the voltage v
C
(t) by 90
0

Voltage drop across C
is proportional to q(t):
) t sin(
C
I
dt ) t cos(
C
I
dt ) t ( i
C
1
(t ) v
D
D
D C
e
e
= e = =
} }
0 (t ) v
c

I
V
X
C
C
=
The RATIO of the
AMPLITUDES V
C
to I is the
capacitive reactance X
C
:
) ( cos I i(t ) t
D
= Choose:
Then:

C
q(t)
(t ) v
C
=
) 2 / t ( cos t) ( sin
D D
t = Note:
so...phase angle u = t/2 for capacitor
) 2 / t cos( V (t ) v
D C C
t e
) (Ohms
C
1

D
C
X
Definition:
capacitive
reactance
Voltage phasor lags the
current phasor by -t/2 in a
pure capacitive part of a
circuit (u negative)
i

v
C
( t )

C
dt i(t) q d =
Capacitive Reactance
limiting cases
e 0: Infinite reactance. DC
blocked. C acts like broken wire.
e infinity: Reactance is zero.
Capacitor acts like a simple wire
Current & voltage phases in pure R, C, and L circuits
Apply sinusoidal voltage E (t) = E
m
cos(e
D
t)
For pure R, L, or C loads, phase angles are 0, t/2, -t/2
Reactance means ratio of peak voltage to peak current (generalized resistances).
V
R
& i
R
in phase
Resistance
R i / V
R max

C
1
i / V
D
C C max
e
= X L i / V
D L L max
e = X
V
L
leads i
L
by t/2
Inductive Reactance
V
C
lags i
C
by t/2
Capacitive Reactance
Current is the same everywhere in a single branch (including phase).
Phases of voltages in series components are referenced to the current phasor
currrent
Same
Phase
Series LCR circuit driven by an external AC voltage
I
m
E
m
u
e
D
t+u
e
D
t
R
L
C
E
V
R
V
C
V
L
Apply EMF:
) t cos( ) t (
D max
u + e = E E e
D
is the driving frequency
The current i(t) is the same everywhere in the circuit

Same frequency dependance as E (t) but...
Current leads or lags E (t) by a constant phase angle u
Same phase for the current in E, R, L, & C
) t cos( I ) t ( i
D max
e =
Phasors all rotate CCW at frequency e
D
Lengths of phasors are the peak values (amplitudes)
The x components are the measured values.
I
m
E
m
u
e
D
t
V
L
V
C
V
R
Plot voltages phasors rotating at e
D
with phases
relative to the current phasor I
m
and magnitudes below :
V
R
has same phase as I
m
V
C
lags I
m
by t/2
V
L
leads I
m
by t/2
R I V
m R
=
C m C
X I V =
L m L
X I V =
0
by
L
lags
C C L R m
180 V V ) V V ( V

+ + = E
along i
m
perpendicular to i
m
0 ) t ( v ) t ( v ) t ( v ) t (
C L R
=

E
Kirchoff Loop rule for potentials (measured along x)
Summary: Lecture 13/14 - LCR & AC Circuits, Oscillations

Lecture Notes 13

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lecture Notes 13

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Copyright R.

Janow Fall 2013

You might also like