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Your tutor names : Abdul Hamid Tan

HP : 012 363 0459
Email : abdulhamid_tan@yahoo.co.uk
naqibah@oum.edu.my
Address : Jabatan Sains Sosial, IPG, Kampus
Pendidikan Teknik, Kompleks Pendidikan
Teknik, Bandar Enstek, 71760 Nilai
Topic 1 -PROBLEM SOLVING
LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1.Define what a problem is;

2.Describe how a problem can present an opportunity for improvement;

3.Explain the four stages involved in the process of problem solving;

4.Explain the importance of goal setting in the problem-solving process;

5.Establish the general guidelines to effective problem solving;

6.Discuss the role of Root Cause Analysis (RCA) technique in the problem-
solving process;

7.Examine the common constraints in the problem-solving process;

1.Compare and contrast the different approaches to problem solving.
SUMMARY

A problem exists when there is a mismatch between what actually
happens with what we want or expect to have happened.
A problem can be defined as an opportunity for improvement.
Problem solving is the process of obtaining a satisfactory solution,
preferably in a novel way.
Problem solving can be seen as a structured or directional. The stages
in problem solving are:
Recognising and defining a problem;
Finding possible solutions;
Selecting the best solution; and
Implementing the solution.
Defining a goal is essential in determining how much of a problem
exists or whether or not there is a problem in the first place. It is vital
to realise that goals change with time and so do the problems you face.

Whenever faced with a problem, an effective solution can be developed
by following these steps:
Problem Exploration;
Goal Establishment;
Idea Generation;
Idea Selection;
Implementation; and
Evaluation or Follow Up.
Root Cause Analysis (RCA) involves the following processes;

Defining the problem;
Collection of data;
Identification of possible causal factors or root causes; and
Recommendation and implementation of solutions.
Constraints faced in problem solving include lack of clarity, polItely,
complexity and dynamics.
Two basic approaches to solving problems can be tackling it at the source,
or tackling its symptoms or effects.
It is important to plan the solution

KEY TERMS
Closed-ended problems

External Locus of Control

"Mop It" Approach

Open-ended problems

Problem-solving cycle


Root Cause Analysis (RCA)

"Stop It" Approach

SWOT Analysis

Thinking out of the box

Topic 2 Research on Thinking
and Problem Solving
Learning Outcomes :

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1.Describe the major antecedents of the science of
psychology;
2.Explain the psychology of thinking;
3.Identify and describe the various concepts of
problem solving;
4.Discuss the research carried out in problem
solving and reasoning; and
5.Explain the transition to the new cognitive era.


John Locke
Source: http://www.philosophypages.com/ph/lock.htm
Edward L. Thorndike
Source: http://www-distance.syr.edu/pvitaelt.html
Kohlers most well-known work on chimp cognition was in
the use of tools to gain access to food
Source: http://wkprc.eva.mpg.de/english/files/wolfgang_koehler.htm
Habitual and New Directions

SUMMARY

Associationism states that the world is represented within ourselves and
our behaviour is guided by associations formed among these ideas.
The mind is a set of faculties, powers, or computational capacities that
operate on incoming sensations.
William James described the human mind as an array of functions, and
consciousness as a dynamic stream of inter-reacting events.
Functionalism mainly focused on consciousness and elementism.
Learning and problem solving are gradual processes based on the
increasing strength of the connection between the stimulus situation and
certain response possibilities.
Behaviourism places behaviour or performance at the focus of attention,
and made it the fundamental fact of psychology.
Gestalt psychology believes that psychological experiences are anti-
elementaristic or not made up of discrete representational elements, but
rather an organised, dynamic field of events that interact or mutually
affect one another.




Common-element concepts define concepts as the abstraction of
elements common to a category of stimuli and the attachment of a
single response to those elements.
Trial and error is linked with the view that obtaining a solution is a
gradual, undirected process that does not involve perception or
comprehension of the problem requirements or structure.
Functional fixedness refers to the fact that an object with a strong
expected function cannot be observed as playing a different role.
Syllogism is a conventional way of training and assessing reasoning.
Deductive reasoning is concerned with syllogisms in which the
conclusion follows logically from the premises.
Inductive reasoning is the process where a simple observation is made
and applied through generalisation to a totally different problem to
make a decision.
Transition to the new cognitive era included concepts such as
hypothesis, strategy, heuristics, encoding, and retrieval, and was greatly
affected by the emergence of computer technology.

KEY TERMS
Associationism

Atmosphere effect

Behaviourism

Common elements

Content effects

Consciousness

Conservative focusing

Deductive reasoning


Elementism

Functional fixedness

Functionalism

Gestalt psychology

Inductive reasoning

Successive scanning

Syllogism

Trial and error

TOPIC 3 IDENTIFYING REASONS AND
CONCLUSIONS
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1.Determine if reasoning is present in an argument;
2.Identify words used in the language of reasoning;
3.Use the Thinking Map to analyze and evaluate
arguments;
4.Apply tests to evaluate the validity and acceptability
of claims; and
5.Identify assumptions and evaluate inferences in an
argument

Six steps in evaluating the
acceptability of a claim
SUMMARY
A case presented cannot be assessed in support of some belief or
decision unless the individual is very clear on what the case is. One
needs to identify and ascertain reasons and conclusions made in the
case.
The language of reasoning uses various types of words and phrases,
known as conclusion indicators, that indicate a conclusion is being
made by the particular claim.
A thinking map used in the understanding and evaluating of a
reasoning includes a list of important questions such as:

What are/is the main conclusion(s);
What are the reasons and their structure;
What is assumed;
Clarifying what is required;
Are the reasons acceptable or not; and
What is the overall evaluation when the analysis of an argument is
being carried out.

In the evaluation of acceptability of reasons, the important
questions that need to be asked include:

Whether the reasons are acceptable or not;
Does the reasoning support its conclusion(s);
Are there other relevant considerations/arguments; and
What is the overall evaluation.

The six steps involved in judging acceptability of a claim skillfully
are:

How certain is the claim;
Does the context of the claim influence its acceptability;
Does the claim require the decision of an expert;
Is the claim widely known or believed;
How well does the claim fit with our other beliefs; and
Is the claim made by a credible source.

In judging the credibility of a source skillfully, the main criteria that
require close attention include the sources reputation for reliability:

Whether the source has a vested interest;
Whether there is corroboration or validation of the claim from
independent sources;
Whether the source has the relevant expertise or training;
The nature of the claim itself; and
Whether the source can provide credible reasons for the claim they
make.
When we argue on a certain case, conclusions are inferred from the
reasons.
For an argument to succeed in justifying its conclusion its reasons
must be true or otherwise acceptable and the inferences which are
then drawn from those reasons must be good ones.

KEY TERMS
Acceptability of claim

Acceptability of reasons

Credibility of sources

Deductive validity


Inferences

Reasoning

Thinking map
Topic 4 Development of Problem
Solving
LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
Explain what is meant by strategic development in problem solving;
Describe representational development in problem solving;
Explain the use of external representations as tools for problem solving;
Describe the role of language and planning in problem solving;
Identify the various specialised representations employed in problem
solving;
Explain the role of interaction in problem solving;
Describe the importance of self-monitoring in problem solving; and
Compare and contrast problem-solving abilities between children and
adolescents.


Significant Stage in Life for the Three
Aspects in the
Development of Problem Solving



Rovee-Collier's experiment
Source: http://psycnet.apa.org
The Tower of Hanoi
Source: http://www.labspaces.net
SUMMARY
Problem-solving strategies can be defined as procedures that
overcome obstacles and achieve goals.
Most of the studies involving collaborative problem solving have
not furnished children with feedback on the correct answers.
The progress in problem solving among children after the first
year arises from the improved ability to internally represent
goals, actions, objects and events.
The ability to solve problems improves as children become able
to express themselves using language in various circumstances
and events.
Besides internal representations, toddlers also exhibit increasing
ability to external representations as tools for solving problems.
Mental model refers to the representation of a body of
knowledge in long-term memory, which may have the same sort
of structure as the models used in reasoning.
Unlike the language, mental imagery and spatial representations
that are acquired in the first two years of the childrens life,
specialised representations are acquired much later in life.
Maps are one important specialised and often used
representation.

The main difference between school and real-world problems is the
frequent difficulty in school in identifying what exactly the problem is.
The ability of children in effectively regulating their thinking activities
become increasingly central to their problem solving as they attain
both increasing numbers of strategies and representational capacities.
Language plays an important role in regulating thinking,
communicating with others and directing the childs own problem
solving.
In solving their problems, children use conscious, explicit and
metacognitive knowledge about the problem as well as available
strategies and their own cognitive capacities.
Effective planning requires the ability to formulate actions in advance,
as well as skill at monitoring and modifying plans; as circumstances
and goals require.
Regulation of cognitive activities is often accomplished through
interaction among people working together rather than through the
efforts of a single individual.
Skilled problem solvers usually practise self-monitoring activities
including questioning and elaborating on their own knowledge;
evaluating their degree of understanding; and thinking of
counterexamples and possible generalisations.


KEY TERMS
Feedback

Goal sketch hypothesis

Maps

Mental models

Planning

Problem solving


Reciprocal teaching

Representational
development

Scaffolding

Self-directed speech

Self-monitoring

Strategic development
Topic 5 Thinking Skills
LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1.Define thinking;
2.Explain the different thinking styles;
3.Distinguish key elements between a good and
poor thinker;
4.Describe the importance of thinking;
5.Compare the two phases in the thinking process;
and
6.Describe the functions and roles of the right and
left brain.


"Rarely do we find men who willingly engage in hard, solid
thinking. There is an almost universal quest for easy answers and
half-baked solutions. Nothing pains some people more than
having to think."
(Martin Luther King)

The activity of the human's mind
becomes thinking only when it is directed
Source: http://www.sonic.net
Albert Einstein
Source: http://www.widelec.org/zdjecie,albert-
einstein,2644,9.html
The thinking process of the human mind has two
distinct phases

Lists the various differences observed between
good and poor thinkers.
Characteristics of Good and Poor Thinkers
Did you know...

Good thinkers are willing to think and may even find thinking
enjoyable. They can carry out searches when necessary and suspend
judgement. They value rationality, believing that thinking is useful for
solving problems, reaching decisions, and making judgements. Poor
thinkers, in contrast, need certainty, avoid thinking, must reach
closure quickly, and rely too heavily on intuition.
( Adapted from Kjos, B.(1995) )


Right and left hemispheres of the human brain
Source: http://creativitymeansbusiness.com/images/brain.gif





It is generally accepted that the dominant functions of
the right hemisphere include imaginative and intuitive feature
while the left hemisphere relates to organisational and
analytical skills.
Source: http://theswash.com/tag/monarchy/

SUMMARY
Thinking is a purposeful mental activity over which we have
power and control. Evidence shows that thinking can still be
carried out in a sub-conscious and non-conscious state of
mind.
Several attempts have been made to describe the nature of
thinking, and the most popular view that is currently regarded
unimportant is that thinking is completely verbal.
The importance of thinking is appreciated only when an
individual faces situations in life which require them of skills
such as analysing, solving problems and making correct
decisions.
The thinking process has two distinct phases; production and
judgement.

Expertise in thinking requires the mastery of all approaches
suitable to each phase and the skill to move back and forth
between them.
Overall, good thinkers have mastered how to face their
frustrations whereas poor thinkers mourn their situation and
allow failure to make them feel incapable and incompetent.
Medical scientists believe that both sides of the brain could
reason out a problem but by employing different strategies,
one side may be the dominant one compared to the other.
In solving a problem, the left brain uses the analytical
approach whereas the right brain uses the holistic or global
approach.
Key Terms
Cerebral

Communications technology

Corpus callosum

Creative thinking

Distinct phases

Factual knowledge

Good thinkers

Intuitive

Judgement phase

Knowledge explosions


Mental blocks

Neuroscientists

Non-conscious

Poor thinkers

Production phase

Reflex actions

Simultaneous processor

Sub-conscious

Successive processor
Topic 6 Critical and Creative
Thinking
LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1.>Define critical thinking, creative thinking and lateral
thinking;
2.Explain the characteristics of critical and creative
thinking;
3.Give examples of critical and creative thinking
respectively
4.Describe the barriers of critical thinking;
5.Identify the application of creative thinking in problem
solving;
6.Describe the six techniques of lateral thinking; and
7.Describe right and left brain crossover.

Two basic thinking skills
Barriers to Critical Thinking
Lack of relevant background
information
Poor reading skills
Bias
Prejudice
Superstition
Self-centred thinking
Group-centred thinking
Peer pressure
Conformism
Provincialism
Narrow-mindedness
Close-mindedness
Distrust in reason
Relativistic thinking
Stereotyping
Unwarranted assumptions
Scapegoating
Rationalization
Denial
Wishful thinking
Short-term thinking
Selective perception
Selective memory
Overpowering emotions
Self-deception
Face-saving
Fear of change
Although critical thinking is important, many highly educated and intelligent
people find it rather a challenge to practise. Below are some common barriers to
critical thinking:
Thinking involves thinking outside
of the box which can be difficult at times
Six Techniques in Lateral
Thinking
Lateral thinking may be useful when applied in the
following:
a.Challenging of a present situation in a positive
manner to allow room for new ideas.
b.Search and build on the concept behind an idea in
order to generate more ideas.
c.Resolve problems in methods that were not thought
of initially.
d.Utilize alternatives to produce and harness the
creative energy of an organization.
e.Transform problems into opportunities.
f.Choose the optimum alternate ideas and put them
into operation.

Alan Bean (a) and Florence Nightingale (b) both demonstrated
strong right and left brain crossover attributes.
Sources: http://www.talentbookingusa.com/speakers/alan-bean.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence_Nightingale
SUMMARY
Critical thinking is a general term given to a wide range of
cognitive skills and intellectual characters required to
effectively identify, analyze and evaluate arguments and
truth claims; to uncover and overcome personal
prejudices and biases; to devise and present convincing
reasons in support of conclusions; and to come up with
reasonable, intelligent decisions about what to believe
and what to do. It is disciplined thinking controlled by
clear intellectual benchmarks that have proven their
values over the course of human history.
The important characteristics of critical thinking are:
clarity; precision; accuracy; relevance; consistency;
logical; correctness; completeness; and fairness.
Creative thinking is important in today's competitive
world. Creative people share a number of important
characteristics, among which are: dynamism; daringness;
resourcefulness; diligence; and independence.

The most important ways to apply creativity to problems and
issues are: taking an innovative approach; formulating a
process or system; devising a new product or service; finding
new uses for existing things; improvising on existing things;
and inventing or redefining a concept.
Lateral thinking employs the utilization of inspiration and
imagination to solve problems by looking at them from
unexpected perspectives; it also involves discarding the
obvious, leaving behind traditional modes of thought, and
throwing away preconceptions.
The crossover of right and left brain produces a sound,
rational and logical decision as both hemispheres of the brain
are responsible for different functions and approaches in a
decision making process.
KEY TERMS
Acquilescence

Brain Crossover

Completeness

Creative Thinking

Critical Thinking

Daringness


Diligence

Dynamism

Fairness

Lateral Thinking

Logical Correctness

Resourcefulness