Introduction to Microprocessors

Historical Background
Evolution of computers
Evolution of Intel microprocessor
Born of microprocessor
Basic Architecture of Microprocessors
Type of processors
1971 Intel
First commercial microprocessor Intel 4004
1978 16-bit 8086
Early 1990s i386, multitasking
1993 Pentium: executing 2 instructions every
clock cycle
Multi-core, 64-bit processors: Core series
While not essential to understand the
microprocessor:
interesting reading
historical perspective of fast-paced evolution

Idea of computing system not new.
Calculating with a machine dates to 500 BC.
Babylonians invented the abacus.
first mechanical calculator
strings of beads perform calculations
Used by ancient priests to keep track of
storehouses of grain.
still in use today

In 1642 mathematician Blaise Pascal invented
a calculator constructed of gears and wheels.
each gear contained 10 teeth
When moved one complete revolution, a
second gear advances one place.
same principle used in automobile odometer
Basis of all mechanical calculators.

In 1823 Babbage was commissioned by Royal
Astronomical Society to build programmable
calculating machine.
to generate Royal Navy navigational tables and
he began to create his Analytical Engine.
Steam-powered mechanical computer.
stored a thousand 20-digit decimal numbers
and variable program that could modify
function of the machine to perform various
calculating tasks.
input through punched cards, much as
computers in the 1950s and 1960s used
punched cards
After many years of work Babbages dream
began to fade.
Introduced by Bomar Corporation the Bomar
Brain, was a handheld electronic calculator.
first appeared in early 1970s
Monroe also pioneer of electronic calculators,
making desktop models.
four-function; size of cash registers
In 1889, Herman Hollerith developed the
punched card for storing data. Also developed
mechanical machine that counted, sorted, and
collated information stored on punched cards.
driven by one of the new electric motors

In 1896 Hollerith formed Tabulating Machine
Company.
developed line of machines using punched cards for
tabulation
After a number of mergers, Tabulating Machine
Co. was formed into International Business Machines
Corporation.
referred to more commonly as IBM, Inc.
Punched cards used in early computer systems was
12 bit code often called Hollerith cards.
German inventor Konrad Zuse, invented the first
modern electromechanical computer.
His Z3 calculating computer probably invented for
aircraft and missile design.
during World War II for the German war effort
Z3 a relay logic machine clocked at 5.33 Hz.
In 1936 Zuse constructed a mechanical version of his system.
In 1939 constructed first electromechanical computer system,
called the Z2.
Zuse today receiving belated honors for
pioneering work in the area of digital electronics
First electronic computer placed in operation to break secret
German military codes. Recently discovered through
declassification of military documents of 1943.


System invented by Alan Turing.
used vacuum tubes,
Turing called his machine Colossus.
probably because of its size
Although design allowed it to break secret
German military codes generated by the
mechanical Enigma machine, it could not solve
other problems.
Colossus not programmable
A fixed-program computer system
today often called a special-purpose computer

First general-purpose, programmable electronic
computer system developed in1946 at University of
Pennsylvania, the Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Calculator (ENIAC), a huge machine.
over 17,000 vacuum tubes; 500 miles of wires
weighed over 30 tons
about 100,000 operations per second
December 23, 1947, John Bardeen, William Shockley, and
Walter Brattain develop the transistor at Bell Labs.
Followed by 1958 invention of the integrated circuit (IC)
by Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments.
IC led to development of digital integrated circuits in the
1960s.
RTL, or resistor-to-transistor logic
First microprocessor, the 4004 was developed at Intel
Corporation in 1971 by Intel engineers Federico Faggin,
Ted Hoff, and Stan Mazor for calculator application.


Transistor technology are superseded by Integrated Circuit.
Limitation on transistors ( size, components, wiring, instability) motivates the
engineers to think to place whole circuit -- the transistors, the wires,
everything else in a single component.
Jack Kilby (Texas Instruments ) and Robert Noyce (Fairchild Semiconductor )
(1958 1959 ) invent it separately - semiconductor
The advancements of IC
technology leads to development
of speeder and smaller
computers
1971 : Intel : 1st CPU : Microprocessor :4004
4-bit data bus, 2,300 transistors
Computation capability = ENIAC
45 instruction set
50K instruction per second
Other Functional Elements
16 general purpose registers
program counter and three levels of return address
stack
ALU both binary and decimal
instruction decoder and all the control logic for the
internal functional blocks of the CPU
generation of timing signal for the CPU and for the
rest of the MCS-4 family
control of the external bus for the memory and for the
I/O functions.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Intel_microprocessors
Intel introduced the 8086 microprocessor in 1978
16-bit processors with 16-bit registers
16-bit data bus and 20-bit address bus
Physical address space = 2
20
bytes = 1 MB
Uses segmentation and real-address mode to address memory
Each segment can address 2
16
bytes = 64 KB
8086, 8087, 8088, and 80186 processors
8087 Floating-Point co-processor
8088 is a less expensive version of 8086
Uses an 8-bit data bus
80186 is a faster version of 8086
80286 was introduced in 1982
24-bit address bus 2
24
bytes = 16 MB address space
Introduced protected mode
Segmentation in protected mode is different from the real mode
80386 was introduced in 1985
First 32-bit processor with 32-bit general-purpose registers
First processor to define the IA-32 architecture
32-bit data bus and 32-bit address bus
2
32
bytes 4 GB address space
Introduced paging, virtual memory,
and the flat memory model
Segmentation can be turned off
80486 was introduced 1989
Improved version of Intel 80386
On-chip Floating-Point unit (DX versions)
On-chip unified Instruction/Data Cache (8 KB)
Uses Pipelining: can execute up to 1 instruction per clock cycle
Pentium (80586) was introduced in 1993
Wider 64-bit data bus, but address bus is still 32 bits
Two execution pipelines: U-pipe and V-pipe
Superscalar performance: can execute 2 instructions per clock cycle
Separate 8 KB instruction and 8 KB data caches
MMX instructions (later models) for multimedia applications
P6 Processor Family: Pentium Pro, Pentium II and III
Pentium Pro was introduced in 1995
Three-way superscalar: can execute 3 instructions per clock cycle
36-bit address bus up to 64 GB of physical address space
Introduced dynamic execution
Out-of-order and speculative execution
Integrates a 256 KB second level L2 cache on-chip
Pentium II was introduced in 1997
Added MMX instructions (already introduced on Pentium MMX)
Pentium III was introduced in 1999
Added SSE instructions and eight new 128-bit XMM registers
Pentium 4 is a seventh-generation x86 architecture
Introduced in 2000
New micro-architecture design called Intel Netburst
Very deep instruction pipeline, scaling to very high frequencies
Introduced the SSE2 instruction set (extension to SSE)
Tuned for multimedia and operating on the 128-bit XMM registers
In 2002, Intel introduced Hyper-Threading technology
Allowed 2 programs to run simultaneously, sharing resources
Xeon is Intel's name for its server-class microprocessors
Xeon chips generally have more cache
Support larger multiprocessor configurations
Pentium M (Mobile) was introduced in 2003
Designed for low-power laptop computers
Modified version of Pentium III, optimized for power efficiency
Large second-level cache (2 MB on later models)
Runs at lower clock than Pentium 4, but with better performance
Extended Memory 64-bit Technology (EM64T)
Introduced in 2004
64-bit superset of the IA-32 processor architecture
64-bit general-purpose registers and integer support
Number of general-purpose registers increased from 8 to 16
64-bit pointers and flat virtual address space
Large physical address space: up to 2
40
= 1 Terabytes
Core2 is available at speeds of up to 3 GHz.
improvement in internal integration, at present
the 0.045 micron or 45 nm technology
A likely change is a shift from aluminum to
copper interconnections inside the
microprocessor.
Another event to look for is a change in the
speed of the front side bus.
increase beyond current maximum 1033 MHz

Recent modifications to Pentium 4 and Core2
include a 64-bit core and multiple cores.
64-bit modification allows address of over 4G
bytes of memory through a 64-bit address.
40 address pins in these newer versions allow
up to 1T (terabytes) of memory to be accessed
Also allows 64-bit integer arithmetic.
less important than ability to address more memory
Biggest advancement is inclusion of multiple
cores.
each core executes a separate task in a program
Increases speed of execution if program is
written to take advantage of multiple cores.
called multithreaded applications

Intel Founder, Gordon More April, 1965 describes (predict .. ?
) a trend in the history of computer hardware
Number of transistors that can be inexpensively placed on an
integrated circuit is increasing exponentially, doubling
approximately every two years .
Kanellos, Michael (10 February 2003) not expected to stop
for another decade at least and perhaps more longer
Almost every measure of the capabilities of digital electronic
devices is linked to Moore's Law: processing speed, memory
capacity, even the resolution of digital camera. And they are
increasing exponentially

Main components of a computers are: IO, CPU, Memory Unit and
Bus.
The memory and I/O are connected to the CPU by a large collection of
wires/conductors called as Bus.
Microprocessor (CPU) : Brain ( heart ? ) AND THIS IS OUR
SUBJECT MATTER the 8088 and 8086


The central processing unit of a computer
A general purpose unit built into a single circuit
A circuit of transistors and other electrical components on
a chip that can process programs, remember information,
or perform calculations
An integrated circuit that accepts coded instructions,
executes the instructions received, and delivers signals
that describe its internal status
Responsible for performing all arithmetic operations and
making the logic decisions initiated by the computer
program
In addition to that, it also controls the overall system
operation
So we call it the Brain

1. Microprocessor ( General purpose, DSP)
Processor on a chip
do not have built in memory, input or output functions such as
parallel ports or serial ports etc.
raw arithmetic and logic functions required by the operating system
at the highest speed.
All other components are provided by external chips and devices.
is designed to meet a broad range of general computing needs that
are provided with a personal computer
Generic PC: A computer with interchangeable components manufactured
by a variety of companies

2. Microcontroller
is an entire computer on a chip, a microprocessor with on-chip memory
and I/O.
These parts are designed into (embedded within) a product and run a
program which never changes
Home appliances, modern automobiles, heat, air-conditioning control,
navigation systems
Intels MCS-51 family, for example, is based on an 8-bit microprocessor,
but features up to 32K bytes of on-board ROM, 32 individually
programmable digital input/output lines, a serial communications channel


Performs the main tasks for the computer system
1. data transfer between P (registers) and memory or I/O
2. arithmetic and logic operations. i.e. ADD, SUB, AND, OR, etc
3. program flow via simple decisions. i.e. Zero, Sign, Carry, etc

All the arithmetic operations of a microprocessor take place in
the
arithmetic logic unit (ALU)

The control unit directs the operation of the other units
1. provide timing and control signals
2. interpret instructions and generate signals necessary for the execution
of instructions (instruction decoder)
3. execute programs which are stored in memory in the form of
instructions and data (program counter)