INTRODUCTION TO SENSORS

The control and regulation of industrial processes and

systems require accurate sensing and measurement.
Initially all controls and sensors were mechanical.
The development of electrical transducers has created a
new field of electrical and electronic sensors.
A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form
to another.

Mechanical sensors were developed over time and are economical
and reliable. The most common form of a mechanical sensor is the
limit switch as illustrated in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Limit Switch
The limitations of mechanical sensors
include the following:

Slow operating speed (when compared to
the speed of electricity), requirement for
physical contact with the material or item
being sensed, and limited operating life.
These limitations have generated a need
for other types of sensors.

ELECTRICAL SENSORS, WHICH HAVE AN ADVANTAGE
OVER MECHANICAL SENSORS, INCLUDE THE
FOLLOWING:

Higher operating speed
Proximity sensing (sensing without physical
contact).
Long life (they have no moving parts)
Reduced maintenance
Smaller size
Shock resistant.


High cost and inability to directly control electrical
devices.
This lack of power handling capability adds to the cost
and complexity of a system, as it is often necessary to
install a relay or amplifier to increase the power handling
capability of the sensor.

DESCRIBE SELECTION OF SENSOR
In selecting a sensor for a particular problem, various physical and technical factors are
considered in order to find the most suitable sensor for the problem. Below is a list of
evaluation criteria that weight differently in accordance with the task in hand.
1. Number of switching cycles per unit time
2. Dependence on particular materials
3. Range
4. Repeating precision
5. Speed of motion of the object to be
sensed
6. Sensitive to external light (with optical
sensor)
7. Reflections (with optical sensors)
8. Sensitivity to humidity
9. Sensitive to contamination
10. Sensitive to vibration
11. Temperature range
12. Compatibility with control and controlled
system
13. Type of energy for sensor
14. Type of energy for control
15. Energy level
16. Constancy of energy
17. Maintenance-repair facilities
18. Service life
19. Costs of signal processing
20. Costs of signal conversion
21. Suppliers available
22. Costs of sensor
23. Cost of sensor interface
24. Type of output signal (digital, binary,
analogue) Piezoelectric
VARIOUS TYPES OF SENSOR
APPLICATION IN THE INDUSTRIES

DESCRIBE THE FUNCTIONS AND
PROPERTIES OF LIMIT SWITCHES
A mechanically operated switch is one that is controlled automatically
by factors such as pressure, position, and temperature.
Limit switches are designed to operate only when a predetermined
limit is reached, and they are usually actuated by contact with an object
such as a cam.
These devices take the place of human operators. They are often used
in the control circuits of machine processes to govern the starting,
stopping, or reversal of motors.
A limit switch is a snap-acting switch housed in a small enclosure
In a snap-acting switch, as in a toggle switch, the actual switching of the circuit
takes place at a fixed speed no matter how quickly or slowly the activating
mechanism moves.
The small size and variety of operating levers make these switches very useful as
limit switches.
They can operate with very small pressures on the operating levers, which allows
a great deal of sensitivity.

Many machine tool operations require a repeated forward and
reverse action in their operation. Figure 2.3 illustrates a
reciprocating motion machine process that uses two limit
switches to provide automatic control of the motor. Each limit
switch (LS1 and LS2) has two sets of contact, one normally open
and the other normally closed.


DESCRIBE THE FUNCTIONS AND
PROPERTIES OF PROXIMITY SENSOR
Proximity sensors or switches are pilot devices that detect the presence of an
object (usually called the target) without physical contact. They are solid-state
electronic devices that are completely encapsulated to protect against
excessive vibration, liquids, chemicals and corrosive agents found in the
industrial environment. Proximity sensors are used when:

Hostile environments demand
improved sealing properties,
preventing proper operation of
mechanical switches.
Long life and reliable service are
required.
A fast electronic control system
requires a bounce-free input signal.
The object being detected is too small, too
lightweight, or too soft to operate a
mechanical switch.
Rapid response and high switching rates
are required, as in counting or ejection
control applications.
An object has to be sensed through non-
metallic barriers such as glass, plastic, and
paper cartons.
DESCRIBE INDUCTIVE
PROXIMITY SENSORS
An inductive proximity sensor is a sensing device that is
actuated by a metal object as shown in Figure 3.1 below.

A typical inductive sensor is shown in block
diagram form in Figure 3.2 in the following page.
The sensor consists of two parts: The detection coil
and support circuitry.
Figure 3.2: Inductive Sensor Block Diagram
The support circuitry uses external power to run an oscillator
circuit inside the sensor.
The oscillator produces a high frequency sinusoidal voltage,
which is applied to the detection coil.
The detection coil, which is placed directly behind the sensor face,
produces an oscillating sensing field as illustrated in Figure 3.3.
Note that the field is actually three dimensional and not two
dimensional as shown.

When a metal target enters the sensing field, eddy currents are
induced in the target.
These eddy currents cause a loss of power in the oscillator
circuit, which results in a reduced oscillator voltage.
A detection circuit contained within the support circuitry
senses the oscillator's reduced voltage and switches the
output.
The inductive proximity sensor contains no mechanical relay
contacts. It is a single integrated circuit.
This integrated circuit contains all the components necessary
for the operation of the sensor.
Integrated circuits are capable of withstanding high shock
loads and vibration. This results in the sensor having a low
failure rate and a long life expectancy.

The output in the sensor provided in your experiment is a DC type with a NPN
normally open (NO) output.
This circuit arrangement is illustrated in figure 3.4. When a significant amount
of metal is present within the sensing range of the sensor, the transistor is turned
on. The sensor's output is connected to ground through the transistor. To turn on
the output indicator, the transistor closes the circuit between the indicator and
ground. This type of circuit operation is known as "current sinking.
When a device is connected between the source and the transistor, the transistor
sinks" the current to ground. Often this type of sensor is connected to a
programmable controller or other logic device. This type of output produces a
logic one or "true" when there is no metal present. If the programmable
controller requires a logic zero or "false" you would need to use a sensor with
an NPN normally closed (NC) output or a PNP NO output.


Proximity Detection - The sensing distance of an
inductive proximity sensor depends on various factors.
Included among these factors are: target size and target
material. All of these factors are inter-related. Table 2
below summarizes these parameters.

Describe Circuit Wiring For An
Inductive Proximity Sensor
Inductive proximity sensors used as switches arc wired into a control
circuit in a manner similar to limit switches.
As illustrated in Figure 3.5, this inductive proximity sensor requires
DC power supplied to the black and red terminals.
The positive is connected to the red terminal and the negative is
connected to the black terminal.
A low current relay must be used to interface the sensor if it is
necessary to control a high current device or a device that is designed
to operate from a voltage other than 24 VDC.
The output from the sensor is taken from the white and black or white
and red terminals depending on whether the sensor has current
sourcing or current sinking respectively.

The inductive proximity sensor that you will be using requires 10 to
30 VDC for proper operation. The output is a normally open (NO)
NPN configuration that is capable of sinking a maximum of 200
mA of current. This requires you to connect a load between the red
and white terminals on the sensor. You cannot operate this device as
a current source. The circuitry is not capable of supplying current to
a load. The resistance of the load must be sufficient to limit the
current flow to 200 mA or less through the sensor. To control a
larger load it is necessary to interface through an appropriate relay
(illustrated in Figure 3.5).

When the sensor detects the presence of metal the output transistor
is energized sinking current through the relay coil. The relay
energizes and the indicator light is on. When the metal is removed,
the transistor is turned off. The relay opens and the light go dark.


SHIELDED INDUCTIVE PROXIMITY
SENSORS
The ferrite core concentrates the radiated field in the direction of
use. A metal ring is placed around the core to restrict the laterial
radiation of the field. Shielded proximity sensors as shown in
Figure 3.6 can be flush mounted in metal, but a metal-free space
is recommended above and around the sensing surface.


An unshielded proximity sensor does not have a metal ring around
the core to restrict lateral radiation of the field. Unshielded sensors
as shown in Figure 3.7 cannot be flush mounted in metal. There
must be an area around the sensing surface that is metal free.


Since inductive proximity switches are of the non-contact type,
care must be taken when mounting to prevent false triggering.
Always consult the manufacturer's data sheet for mounting
constraints before attempting to install. Figure 3.8 illustrates the
minimum clearance values required when mounting in a metal
panel.

If the application indicates that the sensor must be flush mounted,
many manufacturers have shielded switches available (at a
slightly higher cost) that can be mounted flush with the panel.
Figure 3.9 shows the minimum required distance within the
mounting of the inductive proximity sensors in adjacent position
and the opposite position.

DESCRIBE CAPACITIVE
PROXIMITY SENSORS
A capacitive proximity sensor is a sensing device that is actuated
by conductive and non-conductive materials.
The operation of capacitive sensors is also based on the principle
of an oscillator.
Instead of a coil, however, the active face of a capacitive sensor is
formed by two metallic electrodes rather like an opened
capacitor. See Figure 3.11. The electrodes are placed in the
feedback loop of a high-frequency oscillator that is inactive with
no target present.
As the target approaches the face of the sensor, it enters the
electrostatic field that is formed by the electrodes. This causes an
increase in the coupling capacitance, and the circuit begins to
oscillate.


DC proximity sensors can be either current sourcing or current
sinking devices. Current sourcing sensors use a PNP transistor to
switch load current and current sinking type sensors use a NPN
transistor. The type of transistor used is an important factor in
determining the compatibility of the sensor with control system
inputs.
The following drawing shown in Figure 3.13 shows the output
stage of a current sourcing type sensor.


In a current sinking sensor, an NPN transistor is used. When the
NPN transistor switches on, conventional current flows through
the load to the transistor. This is referred to as current sinking
since the direction of conventional current is into the sensor. The
output in the sensor provided in your experiment is DC type with
an NPN NO output. The circuit arrangement is shown in Figure
3.14.


A minimum clearance distance must be provided when
mounting a capacitive proximity switch in a panel or above any
surface. This is to prevent the material of the panel or bracket
from being sensed and affecting the sensor's operation. If the
application requires flush mounting, many manufacturers
produce a shielded sensor (at a slightly higher cost) that can be
mounted flush. Figure 3.17 illustrates the minimum clearance
distances required to ensure the proper operation of the
capacitive sensor
Figure 3.18 illustrates the minimum mounting dimensions required
to prevent mutual interference between two or more sensors when
they are to be mounted close to each other. When sensors are too
close to each other, the sensing field of one sensor can interfere
with another. This will cause erratic operation of one or more of
the proximity sensors. Always consult the manufacturer's data
sheets before installing these sensors. When mounting both
inductive sensors, make sure the sensing field of the other sensor
does not interfere with another.


DESCRIBE THE FUNCTIONS AND
PROPERTIES OF PHOTOELECTRIC
SENSORS
A photoelectric sensor includes the following elements: an
emitter (light source), a receiver to detect the emitted light, and
associated electronics that evaluate and amplify the detected
signal causing the sensors output to change the state (high to
low or low to high).

The photoelectric switch is constructed with a window in the casing.
Also, a transistor can be coupled with the photoelectric diode to amplify
the signal to a level that is compatible with machine control circuits.
This combination is called a PHOTO TRANSISTOR.
The light source originally used in photoelectric switches was an
incandescent lamp, similar to the bulbs in your home. The chief
advantage of this type is that you can actually see the light beam,
making it easy to align the source with the receiver. It also helps to
identify when the lamp is burned out. The main disadvantage of this
type is that it cannot be used in sunlight or in areas where there is a lot
of external light.
Another problem with using the incandescent lamp is mechanical
vibration, which can cause the filament to break resulting in premature
failure. The infrared light emitting diode (IRLED) is the latest method
used in photoelectric switching. It is a solid state device and it
unaffected by mechanical vibrations. The life expectancy of the IRLED
is hundred of -years while the incandescent lamp is in the range of 1,000
to 10,000 hours. Because of this, lamp life is life is no longer a major
source of system failure. Since the LED has no filament to break, it can
be reliably used on application where there is heavy vibration


The LED's life is so long that it usually will outlast the
life of the switch contacts. Therefore, manufacturers
permanently encase the LED in the photoelectric switch.
This helps protect the switch and reduce cost.
The above advantages have made the modulated LED-
type photoelectric switch the best choice for most
applications. The only application it cannot approach is
the sensing of colour differences. This is because the
LED only emits light of one wavelength (colour). This
application still requires the use of an incandescent light
source.
The method in which the receiver receives the light beam
from the transmitter is called the DETECTION
METHOD or SCANNING TECHNIQUE.

There are three primary methods used in industry. The
three methods are: 1) Direct, 2) Retro reflective, and 3)
Proximity as shown in Figure 4.2.

DESCRIBE THROUGH-BEAM OR DIRECT
DETECTION METHOD
Through-beam sensors have a transmitter, which emit pulses, and
a receiver. If the beam between the transmitter and the receiver is
interrupted the output of the receiver switches the state (high to
low or low to high).

Advantages:
Large sensing distance is
possible as emitter and receiver
are kept opposite to each other.
Suitable for precise detection of
large as well as small objects.
Repeatability and indexing
precision are not impaired even
if the object surface or
background is reflecting.
Field Of Application:
Through Beam Sensors are used for sensing semi-transparent opaque objects such as
glass/plastic bottle, silver breakage detection, paper breakage detection, door
opening/closing etc.
DESCRIBE RETRO-REFLECTIVE
DETECTION METHOD
The retro-reflective method uses a reflector located in the pre-set operating
range. The operating range is adjusted for the reflector. The pulses are bounced
off the reflector and the echo pulses are returned to the sensor. When a target
blocks the echo pulses, the output is activated. The retro-reflective method is
typically used in applications where the target is good sound absorber.
Advantages:
Easy assembly compared to the
through beam type.
Large active sensing range
compared to diffused beam type.
Field Of Application:
This sensor can be used where it is difficult to install a through-beam sensor due to space
constraint. Furthermore, simple wiring makes it suitable where sensing objects are bigger
in size. Thus, these sensors are used for loop control in decoiler, edge detection in paper /
sheet metal etc.
DESCRIBE DIFFUSED-REFLECTIVE OR
PROXIMITY DETECTION METHOD
Diffused-reflective or proximity method is the standard
mode of operation. In this mode, objects travelling in any
direction into the operating range of the sound cone will
cause the sensor to switch output states.
Reflectivity is affected by
material type, colour, and
texture. A higher degree of
reflectivity is desirable when
using proximity detection
because it will better reflect
the beam back to the sensor.
proximity detection is the type of reflection that is taking place. If the object is
smooth and highly polished, it will reflect the beam off the same angle as the
light striking the surface. This is called SPECULAR reflection and is shown in
Figure 4.7. lf the object is rough or unpolished, such as wood, the beam will be
reflected off at many angles in approximately equal amounts. This is called
DIFFUSE reflection and is shown in Figure 4.8.
Advantages: Correction
Factor For Sensing
Distance:
Transmitter and receiver
are housed in the same
housing.
As the self-reflection of an
object is used for detection;
dark & light marks can be
distinguished.
Field Of Application:

These sensors are particularly used for position sensing and counting of non-
metallic objects. It is also used for label sensing, level sensing, height sensing,
plastic film sensing, edge detection of paper or sheet metal etc.

Features of this type of sensor include:
Noncontact detection. Noncontact detection eliminates damage either
to the target or sensor head, ensuring long service life and
maintenance-free operation.
Detection of targets of virtually any material. Detection is based on
the quantity of light received, or the change in the quantity of light
received, or the change in the quantity of reflected light. This method
allows detection of targets of diverse materials such as glass metal,
plastics, wood, and liquid.
Long detecting distance. The reflective-type photoelectric sensor can
detect a distance of 1 m, and the through-beam type has a detecting
distance of 10 m.

High response speed. The photoelectric sensor is capable of a
response speed as high as 50 s (1/20,000 s).
Colour discrimination. The sensor has the ability to detect light
from an object based on the reflectance and absorbance of its
colour, thus permitting colour detection and discrimination.
Highly accurate detection. A unique optical system and a
precision electronic circuit allow highly accurate positioning
and detection of minute objects.
For example, a reflective-type photoelectric sensor used for the
detection of the presence of absence of a label is shown in Figure
4.9(a). In Figure 4.9(b), through-beam photoelectric sensor heads are
positioned above and below the resistors travelling on a production
line. A variation on the line changes the quantity of the laser beam, thus
signalling a defect.
In most photoelectric sensors, a light-emitting diode (LED) is the
light-transmitting source, and a phototransistor is the receiving source
(Figure 4.10). In operation, light from the LED falls on the input of
the phototransistor, and the amount of conduction through the
transistor changes. Analog outputs provide an output proportional to
the quantity of light seen by the photo detector.
Dark Operate
Dark Operate (DO) is an operating mode in which the load is
energized when light from the emitter is absent from the
receiver.

Light Operate

Light Operate (LO) is an operating mode in which the load is
energized when light from the emitter reaches the receiver.

Operating Modes
Table 1 below shows the relationship between operating mode
and load status for through, retro-reflective and diffuse scan
sensors.


Describe The Functions And
Properties Of Fibre Optics

A fibre-optic sensor system consists of a fibre-optic cable
connected to a remote sensor, or amplifier (Figure 5.1).

Figure 5.1 in a fibre-optic sensing system;
the emitter and the receiver share a single
housing. The fibre-optic cable that is
connected to the amplifier allows the
sensor to reach areas inaccessible to
standard photoelectric sensors.

The sensor emits, receives, and converts
the light energy into an electrical signal.
The cable is the mechanical component
that transports the light into and out of
areas that are either too space constrained
or too hostile back to the sensor.
Fibre-optic cable consists of a plastic or glass core surrounded
by a layer of cladding material (Figure 5.2). The difference in
densities between these two components enables the cables to
act in accordance with the principle of total internal reflection,
which will be discussed later.

Glass Fibres
Optical fibre can be made of either glass or plastic. Glass optical
fibres consist of a bundle of very thin glass strands, each
typically measuring 0.051 mm (0.002 in.) dia. A flexible
stainless steelarmoured sheath is usually added to protect the
bundle of cladded fibres, but for some applications a polyvinyl-
chloride jacket (PVC) is used.

Glass, by nature, is very resilient, a trait that enables it to
perform reliably under extreme conditions such as high
temperatures or a corrosive environment. Glass fibre bundles
can withstand operating temperatures as high as 450F as
standard product. Customers whose applications have operating
temperatures >450F can special-order cables capable of
surviving operating temperatures as high as 1200F.


Plastic Fibres
Plastic fibre-optic cable usually consists of a single strand typically 0.254
1.52 mm dia. These fibres are flexible, and excellent for applications that
require repeated flexing as well as for use in extremely tight areas. They
generally are sold with a cutting device that allows customers to trim to the
desired length.

If the sensor is going to be exposed to harsh chemicals, solvents, or high
temperatures, glass fibres are preferable. But plastic fibres can be sheathed
with teflon, nylon, or polypropylene for added immunity to hostile
environments.

The degree to which light energy is attenuated as it travels through optical
fibre is influenced by three factors: the fibre material, the distance travelled in
the fibre, and the wavelength of the light. Glass fibres perform fairly
consistently at all wavelengths. Plastic fibres, however, tend to absorb light
from IR LEDs. Visible LEDs, such as red, exhibit less attenuation in plastic
optical fibre and are therefore in wider use.

Describe Sensing Modes And
Fibre-Optic Assemblies
Because fibre-optic sensor systems are a derivative of photoelectric sensing
technology, photoelectric sensing modes (diffuse reflective, through-beam,
retro-reflective) are also available for fibre optics. The two types of fibre-
optic assemblies that address these sensing modes are individual and
bifurcated.

Fibre-optic through-beam mode, as shown in Figure 5.3, requires two cables.
One is attached to the emitter of the remote sensor and is used to guide light
energy to a sensing location. The other is attached to the receiver of the
remote sensor and is used to guide light energy from the sensing location
back to the remote sensor. As with standard through-beam photoelectric
sensing, the emitter and detector cables are positioned opposite each other.
Sensing is achieved when the light beam that extends from the emitter to the
receiver fibre-optic cable is interrupted.

A bifurcated fibre-optic assembly is
used for both diffuse reflective and
retro-reflective sensing. In contrast to
an individual cable, a bifurcated cable
combines the emitter and the receiver
cable assemblies into one assembly.
The emitter and receiver strands are
laid side-by-side along the length of
the cable as shown in figure 5.3 and
are randomly mixed at the sensing
point, an ideal configuration for
applications that require a compact
sensing tip. When an object is in front
of the sensing tip of the bifurcated
cable, light from the emitter cable
reflects off the object and back into the
receiver of the remote sensor via the
receiver cable, and detection is
achieved.

Control Circuits
Fibre optic switches (FOS) are connected into a control circuit
similar to a limit switch except that the infrared switch requires
a power supply to operate. As illustrated in figure 5.4, the fibre
optic switch explained in the sensor kit requires power
connected to one set of terminals. The other set of terminals are
the contacts to which a load is connected. One terminal will
conduct current when it sees dark, the other when it sees light.

Advantages Of Optical Fibres

Optical fibres offer less attenuation of transmitted signals.
Optical fibres can handle data at a wide range of transmission rates,
even high-speed computer data can be handled by optical fibres.
The frequency of light signal used in optical fibre transmission is
very high (10
14
Hz).
Optical fibres can transmit power, but this capability is limited.
The security of communication systems involving optical fibres is
much higher than for other systems. Any attempt to physically
intercept the light travelling down an optical fibre will change the
characteristics of the signal.
Optical fibres are small.
Optical fibres weigh very little.
Optical fibres are flexible.

Disadvantages Of Optical Fibres

1. Optical fibres cannot carry electricity. This is a major drawback since
virtually all equipment used in measurement, entertainment, and
communications is electrical or electronic in nature.
2. Optical fibres are so small that they are difficult to handle. Coupling and
splicing fibres are more complicated than soldering copper conductors.
3. Optical fibres are vulnerable to radiation. Ionizing radiation in some parts
of the spectrum can change the index of refraction of the fibres.

Having said that though, the advantages of using optical fibres far outweigh
the disadvantages.


Describe Magnetic Reed Switch
Functions And Operation
This type of switch is used to switch small
electrical currents. The typical magnetic reed
switch is rated to switch 50 to 250 milliamperes
with a maximum voltage of 230 volts. This
switch requires no physical connection, such as
a handle or knob to actuate it. The switch
consists of a glass tube containing two small
ferromagnetic metal reeds.
These reeds form the actual switch contacts.
When a significantly strong magnetic field is
brought near the reed switch, a magnetic field is
induced in the reeds.
The free ends of the reeds move because the
poles of the induced magnetism obey the law of
magnetism that unlike poles will attract each
other.
Magnetic reed switches are available in typical switch
configurations. These include SPST, SPDT, DPST, and DPDT. A
SPST switch is a single pole single throw switch. A normally
open (NO) switch of this type is shown in Figure 6.2 below. The
switch arrangement is known as a Form A configuration. This is
the most widely used configuration for the magnetic reed switch.


Being mechanical the magnetic reed switch exhibits the
characteristics of a typical mechanical switch. The illustration in
Figure 6.3 below shows the operation of the magnetic reed
switch with effect of the magnetic field on it. If the switch is a
NO switch, the reeds will produce unlike poles. When these
unlike poles become strong enough, the magnetic attraction will
cause the free ends of the reeds to attract each other. This closes
the switch.

The operation of these switches is affected by the amount and
type of current passing through them. Switching of excessive
currents will cause the reeds switch to pit and burn. Repeated
overloads will cause the reeds to stick together and the switch is
ruined. Figure 6.4 illustrates the derating curve and specifications
for a typical magnetic reed switch. A higher switched voltage
means load current must be lower.


The magnetic reed switch is not an
electronic device. It is simply a low
current switch. The switch may be
placed either between the power
source and the load to source current
or between the load and ground to
sink current. Figure 6.5 illustrates
these typical configurations.
Unlike the previous sensors, the
magnetic reed switch is a bi-
directional device. This means that
electricity may flow through it in
either direction. This also allows it
to switch alternating currents.