2.1. Cell Structure and Function of Organelles

Prepared by: Farizah abdullah
Lesson Objective: Describe the detailed structure and

function of cell wall.

TOPIC 2.1: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANELLES
In plants, the plasma membrane is surrounded
by a rigid cellulose cell wall that distinguishes
them from animal cells.
The cell wall protects the plant cell, maintains its
shape, and prevents excessive uptake of water.
The basic composition of the walls are
microfibrils that made of the polysaccharide
cellulose & embedded in a matrix of other
polysaccharides & protein.
A young plant cell first secretes a thin & flexible
wall called the primary cell wall.
2.1: a. CELL WALL
Between primary walls of adjacent cells is the
middle lamella, a thin layer rich in sticky
polysaccharides called pectin.
The middle lamella glues the cells together.
After the cell stop growing, either new wall
material is secreted that thicken & solidifies the
primary wall or multiple layers of a secondary
cell wall with a different chemical composition
are formed between the primary wall & the
plasma membrane.

The primary cell wall contains cellulose
microfibrils loosely arranged. The microfibrils are
embedded in an amorphous matrix of
hemicellulos, calcium & magnesium pectate.
This arrangement produces spaces between
microfibrils. The cell wall is freely permeable to
water & solutes.
In secondary cell wall, the cellulose microfibrils
are more compact & successive layers are
arranged at different angles.
Additional thickening such as lignin in tracheids
& xylem vessels give mechanical strength &
support.
Suberin in cork cells & cutin on epidermal
surfaces reduce evaporation of water &
entry of pathogens.
The cell walls have pits. These pits enable
cytoplasmic strands (plasmodesmata)
to pass through the connecting cytoplasm
of one cell & its adjacent cell.
Pit in lignified walls of tracheids & xylem
vessels allow lateral transport to take
place.
Lesson Objective: Describe the structure, function
and location of cytoplasm.

Cytoplasm is the entire region between the
nucleus & the plasma membrane.
It consist of cytosol & organelles suspended in
it.
Cytosol contains various component:
About 90% water & solutes such as sugars, amino
acids, enzymes, fatty acids, nucleotides, ATP &
dissolved gases.
Large molecules such as proteins which form colloids
Microfilaments & microtubules which form the
cytoskeleton, providing support to the cell & are
involved in cell mortality.

b. CYTOPLASM.
Lesson Objective: Describe the detailed structure,
function and location of organelles.

This is one of the specialize structures in
the cell that carry out specific functions,
such as the mitochondria, Golgi
apparatus, ribosomes; many organelles
are membrane-bounded.
The membranes that surround membrane-
bounded organelles & the plasma
membrane have the same basic structure.
c. ORGANELLES
and location of nucleus.

Nucleus is the most prominent organelle in the cell.
It is usually spherical or oval in shape & averages 5m in
diameter.
The nuclear envelope consists of 2 layers of
membranes that separate the nuclear contents from the
surrounding cytoplasm.
The spaces between the outer membrane & the inner
membrane is known as perinucleus.
The nuclear envelope is perforated by numerous pores.
Nuclear pores regulate the passage of materials
between nucleoplasm & cytoplasm.
i. NUCLEUS
Most of the cells DNA is located inside the
nucleus.
DNA is associated with histone proteins, forming
a complex known chromatin.
In dividing cells, the chromatin condenses &
becomes visible, called chromosomes.
Most nuclei have one or more compact
structures called nucleoli (sing.,nucleolus).
A nucleolus is not membrane-bounded.
Here a special type of RNA called ribosomal
RNA is synthesized.

Functions of nucleus
Chromosome contain the genetic
material of the cell.
The nuclear acts as the centre to
control cell activities and cell division.
Production of ribosomes and RNAs
needed for protein and enzyme
synthesis.
and location of ER.

The ER is a membranous system which is
continuous with the outer membrane &
scattered extensively in the cell.
There are 2 distinct types of ER:
1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
2. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
Although these regions have different
functions, the membranes are connected
and their internal spaces are continuous.
ii. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
The RER consists of an interconnected system
of membrane-bounded flattened sacs called
sisternae.
It is continuous with the outer membrane of the
nucleus & has many ribosome on the outer
surface of its membrane.
RER is abundant in cells which are rapidly
growing or secretory cells. Eg: pancreatic cells.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
(RER)
Polypeptide chains synthesized by
ribosomes are modified by enzymes that
add complex carbohydrates or lipids to
them forming glycoprotein or lipoprotein.
The protein are then transferred to other
compartments by small transport vesicles.
Transport vesicles containing modified
proteins are budded off from RER &
transported to the Golgi apparatus.
Functions of RER
SER is more tubular & does not have
ribosomes bound to it, so its outer
membrane surfaces appear smooth.
SER is abundant in cells involved in lipid &
steroid hormone synthesis, eg. cells in the
testes & ovaries or cells involved in
detoxification, eg. liver cells.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
The SER is the site of lipid synthesis (triglycerides,
phospholipids,cholesterol & steroid hormone) & the
metabolism of carbohydrate.eg. SER in liver cells.
Enzymes of the SER in liver cells are involved in
detoxification. eg. drugs & alcohol.
The SER becomes modified to form sarcoplasmic
reticulum surrounding the muscle microfibril. It
stores or release calcium ions for muscle
contraction.
The ER divides the cytoplasm into more
compartments & increase surface area for chemical
reactions to take place.
Functions of SER
and location of Golgi body.

First described in 1898 by the Italian
microscopist Camillo Golgi.
Golgi apparatus consists of a stack of flattened,
membrane-bounded sacs called cisternae.
However, unlike ER the internal spaces of Golgi
complex & the membranes are not continuous.
Each stack contains about 4-7 sisternae.
Each Golgi stack has three areas referred to as
cis & trans faces with a medial region between.
iii.GOLGI APPARATUS/GOLGI BODY
Typically, the cis face is located nearest the
nucleus & functions to receive materials from
transport vesicles from the ER.
The trans face, nearest to the plasma
membrane, packages molecules in vesicles &
transports them out of the Golgi.
The Golgi apparatus is continuously being
formed at the cis-end to replace the vesicles
whish bud off at the trans-end.
Golgi apparatus is abundant in secretory cells &
cells rapidly dividing e.g. Pancreatic cells, goblet
cells, cells in testes & ovaries.

The Golgi apparatus functions principally to
process, sort, & modify proteins.
The glycoproteins are synthesize in the RER &
later in the Golgi.
The glycoproteins are transported from the RER
to the cis face of the Golgi apparatus in a small
transport vesicles formed from the ER
membrane.
Products of the ER are usually modified during
their transit from the cis face to the trans face
of the Golgi.
Functions of Golgi Apparatus.
For e.g. various Golgi enzymes modify the
oligosaccharide portions of glycoproteins.
Oligosaccharides are first added to proteins in
the RER.
The Golgi removes some sugar monomers &
substitutes others, producing a large variety of
oligosaccharides.
Glycoproteins are packaged in secretory
vesicles in the trans region.
These vesicles pinch off from the Golgi
membrane & transport their contents to a
specific destination.

Vesicles transporting products for export from
the cell fuse with the plasma membrane.
The vesicles becomes part of the plasma
membrane & the glycoproteins are secreted
from the cells.
Other vesicles may store glycoproteins for
secretion at a later time.
In animal cells, the Golgi apparatus also
manufactures lysosomes.
In plants cells, the Golgi secretes
polysaccharides for the formation of cell plates &
cell walls.
and location of lysosome

Lysosomes are produced by the Golgi
apparatus.
They are spherical, small sacs covered by a
single membrane.
The membrane is resistant to digestion &
prevents the release of enzymes which would
destroy the cell contents.
Lysosomes contain a high concentration of
hydrolytic enzymes involved in intracellular
digestion such as protease, lipase.
iv. LYSOSOMES (SUICIDE BAG)
and location of lysosome

Primary lysosomes are formed by budding from
the Golgi apparatus.
Their hydrolytic enzymes are synthesized in the
RER.
One or more primary lysosomes fuse with the
vesicle containing the ingested material, forming
a larger vesicle called secondary lysosome.
In the secondary lysosome the powerful
enzymes come in contact with the ingested
molecules & degrade them into their
components.

1) Digestion of ingested food.
- Primary lysosome fuses with the food
vacuole forming a secondary lysosome,
hyrolytic enzymes are released to break
down the food into smaller particles for
absorption.
2. Autophagy
- The worn-out organelle, eg. mitochondria
is surrounded by SER to form
autophagosome.
Functions of lysosomes
-Lysosome fuses with the autophagosome
& enzyme are then released to digest the
organelle.

3. In cells that carry out phagocytosis e.g.
neutrophils & macrophages, the lysosomes
fuse with the phagocytic vacuoles to break
down the pathogens e.g. bacteria.

4. Autolysis
- In old or damaged cells. Enzymes are
released to digest the cell.
- Role in metamorphosis eg. The
reabsorption of tadpole tails, the
digestion of larval tissues to be replaced
by new tissues.

and location of ribosomes.

Ribosomes are small, dense granules &
made of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) & protein.
Ribosome is composed of two subunits: a
large subunit & a small subunit.

v. RIBOSOMES
Ribosomes are found attached to the RER
or occur freely within the cytoplasm.
Ribosomes can occur singly or group
together to form polysomes.
Cells that have high rates of proteins
synthesis have a particularly large
number of ribosomes. E.g. a human
pancreas cells.

Site of proteins synthesis.
- Most of the proteins made by free
ribosomes will function within the cytosol,eg.
are enzymes that catalyze the first step of
sugar break down.
- Bound ribosomes generally makes proteins
that are destined either for insertion into
membrane, for packaging within certain
organelles such as lysosomes, or for export
from the cells (secretion).
Functions of ribosomes
Mitochondria are found in nearly all eukaryotic
cells, including those of plants, animals, fungi &
protists.
Mitochondria are about 1-10m long.
The mitochondrion is enclosed by two
membranes; the outer membrane is smooth, but
the inner membrane is convoluted, with
infoldings called cristae.
Cristae greatly increase the surface area of the
inner membrane, providing a surface for the
chemical reactions.
vi. MITOCHONDRION
and location of mitochondria

Between the two membranes is the
intermembrane space.
The inner membrane encloses a fluid-filled
matrix. In the matrix can be found a few circular
strands of DNA, 70S ribosomes & enzymes that
used in the Krebs cycle.
DNA in the mitochondria enables the
mitochondria to replicate during cell division.
Function of mitochondria
Mitochondrion are the sites of cellular
respiration, the catabolic process that generates
ATP.
Chloroplasts are large plastids found in the
photosynthetic tissues of plant e.g. mesophyll
cells & algae.
Chloroplasts are organelles that contain
chlorophyll, a green pigment that traps energy
for photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts also contain a variety of yellow &
orange light-absorbing pigments known as
carotenoids.
Chloroplast are typically disc-shaped structures,
measuring about 5 to 10m in lengths.
vii. CHLOROPLASTS
and location of chloroplast.

Chloroplast is bounded by a
double membrane.
The inner membrane encloses
a fluid-filled space called the
stroma, which contains enzyme
( catalyse light-independent
reactions), circular DNA,
ribosomes, starch granules &
lipid globules.
A series of interconnecting
flattened membrane-bounded
sacs, called the thylakoids, are
found in the stroma. Thylakoid
membranes may be stacked
into granum (plural, grana).
Site of photosynthesis.
- The grana & thylakoid membrane provide large
surface areas for chlorophyll & accessory
pigments to be located to trap light energy &
carry out production of ATP & NADPH.
- The stroma contains enzymes to carry out
light-independent reaction ( Calvin cycle ) &
the production of high energy organic
molecules e.g. sugar.
Functions of chloroplasts.
and location of centrioles.

Centrioles are found in animal cells.
The centrioles are located outside the nucleus in
a material of poorly defined structure called the
centrosome.
Centrioles are paired cylinders ( about 0.3-0.5
m long & 0.24m diameter) & held at right
angle to each other.
Each cylinder consists of nine triplets of
microtubules in a 9+0 arrangement.
The centrioles separate & move to opposite
ends of the cell before cell division.
vii. CENTRIOLES
Centrioles act as organizers of
spindle fibers & are involved in the
separation of chromosomes or
chromatids during cell division.
In some cells, centrioles divide to
produce basal bodies from which
flagella & cillia develop.
Functions of centrioles
The cytoplasm contains a cytoskeleton
which has 3 components:
- microtubules
- microfilaments
- intermediate filaments
The cytoskeleton gives mechanical
support, maintains cell shape & aids cell
motility.
c. THE CYTOSKELETON
The structure & function of the cytoskeleton
Property Microtubules Microfilaments
Structure

Diameter

Hollow tubes; wall
consists of 13
columns of tubulin
Molecules.

25nm with 15nm
Lumen.
2 intertwined
strands of actin.

7nm
Protein
Subunits

Main
functions
Tubulin, consisting
of -tubulin &
-tubulin.

Maintenance of cell
shape.
Cell motility ( as in
cilia & flagella).
Chromosome
movements in cell
division.
Organelle movements.
Actin

Maintenance of cell
shape.
Changes in cell shape.
Muscle contraction.
Cytoplasmic streaming.
Cell motility ( as in
pseudopodia).
Cell division.

and location of vacuoles

Vacuoles are cavities bound by a single membrane
Young plant cells usually have many vacuoles which
fuse to form a single large central vacuole, the nucleus
& cytoplasm are pushed to the cell periphery.
The plant vacuole contains cell sap & is surrounded
by a single membrane called tonoplast.
The cell sap is a solution containing dissolved organic
molecules eg. sugars & amino acids, pigments,
mineral ions, oxygen, carbon dioxide & some waste
products.
The vacuoles in animal cells are smaller & temporary.
They are formed by phagocytosis or pinocytosis
VACUOLES
Function of vacuoles
In plants the vacuole
functions to store food
substances e.g. sugars,
amino acids & mineral ions.
Vacuoles of some cells eg.
petals of flowers contain
colored pigments to attract
insects for pollination.
Vacuoles in leaves
accumulate some waste
products eg. tannins & are
removed whe.n the leaves
fall.

Lesson Objective:Describe the structure, function and location of
plasma membrane. Description of Fluid Mosaic
Model is required.

All cell are covered by a thin plasma membrane
(cell surface membrane) which separates the
cell contents from the extracellular environment.
The plasma membrane & the organelle
membrane have the same basic structure.
In 1972, S. J. Singer & G.L.Nicolson proposed
the fluid-mosaic model of cell membrane
consisting of a bilayer of phospholipids with
various protein molecules embedded & attached
to it.
The membrane is about 7 - 7.5nm thick.
PLASMA MEMBRANE
A phospholipid is an amphipathic molecule,
meaning it has both a hydrophilic region & a
hydrophobic region.
The cell membrane consists of a phospholipid
bilayer. The polar hydrophilic heads of
phospholipids point outwards, attracted to the
aqueous surrounding & form hydrogen bonds
with water molecules. The non-polar,
hydrophobic tails face inwards, & are
attracted to one another by hydrophobic
interactions & Van der Waals forces.

There are 2 major classes of membrane
proteins, integral proteins (intrinsic protein)
& peripheral proteins (extrinsic protein).
Peripheral proteins are not embedded in
the lipid bilayer at all, they are loosely
bound to the outer & inner surface of the
membrane.
The integral proteins are embedded
partially in the membrane & some
penetrate through the membrane.

The protein part that contains hydrophobic
amino acids interact with the hydrophobic
fatty acid chains to expel the water. The
hydrophilic part of the protein is attracted
to the aqueous.
Some of the proteins & phospholipids
conjugate with short branched
oligosaccharides to form glycoproteins &
glycolipids on the outer surface. These
are important for cell recognition.

Membrane fluidity
Cell membrane are not static sheets of
molecules locked rigidly in place. It is dynamic,
fluid structures.
Most of the lipids & some of the proteins can
move laterally or change places that is in the
plane of the membrane give the membrane
fluidity.
Unsaturated fatty acids have double bonds
which form kinks. These prevent close packing
of the phospholipid molecules, increase fluidity &
promote movement of substances across the
membrane
The steroid cholesterol, which is found
between phospholipid molecules, has
different effects on membrane fluidity
cholesterol makes the membrane less fluid
by restraining the movement of
phospholipids

The proteins are scattered in the fluid
phospholipid bilayer giving a mosaic
appearance & have different structure &
functions.

Membranes are mosaics of structure
& function
Lesson Objective: Explain the roles of phospholipid
and protein in membrane.

Surface membrane forms a protective barrier
between cell contents & external environment, &
determine the shape of the cell.
Form membranous organelles, for eg.
mitochondria, chloroplast & ER.
Membranes are selectively permeable &
regulate movement of substances in & out of the
cell.
- small molecules such as oxygen, CO2 &
hydrophobic molecules diffuse through
phospholipid bilayers down a concentration
gradient.
Functions of membrane.
- Protein channels & carriers move polar
ions, molecules, for e.g. glucose & amino
acids across membranes by facilitated
diffusion.
- The protein pumps actively transport
substances against a concentration
gradient.
Some membrane proteins act as electron
carriers in the electron transport chain.
Glycoproteins with branching oligosaccharides
act as antigens
Glycolipids are involved in cell-cell
recognition.
Cell adhesion proteins join cells together
forming tissue which carries out specific
function.
Cholesterol molecules help to stabilize the
membrane structure & reduce the entry or
exit of polar molecules through the
membrane.
Cell-cell recognition, a cells ability to distinguish one
type of neighboring cell from another.
It is important, for eg. in the sorting of cells into tissues &
organs.
It also the basis for the rejection of foreign cells
( including those of transplanted organ) by immune
system.
The oligosaccharides on the external side of the plasma
membrane vary from species to species, among
individuals of the same species, & even from one cell
type to another in a single individual.
Membrane carbohydrates are important for cell-cell
recognition.
The diversity of the molecules & their
location on the cells surface enable
oligosaccharides to function as markers
that distinguish one cell from another, for
e.g. the human blood groups designated
A, B, AB & O reflect variation in the
oligosaccharide on the surface of the
blood cells.

2.1. Cell Structure and Function of Organelles

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

2.1. Cell Structure and Function of Organelles

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Prepared by: Farizah abdullah

Lesson Objective: Describe the detailed structure and

You might also like