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POWER GENERATION AND

PLANT OPERATION
INTRODUCTION
Course Contents
Energy Sources,
Steam Power Plants,
Boilers, Condensers,
Water conditioning,
Combustion, Cooling Water Supply,
Water Turbines,
Hydropower Plants
Gas Turbine combined cycle plants
Nuclear Power Reactors, Steam Generators

Energy Sources
Fuels Solids Coal, Coke, Anthracite etc.
Liquids Petroleum and its derivates
Gases Natural gas, blast furnace gas

Energy stored in water
Nuclear Energy
Wind Power
Solar Energy
Tidal Power
Geothermal Energy etc.
Fuels
A chemical fuel is a substance which release heat
energy on combustion. Carbon & Hydrogen are the
principal combustible elements.
Types of Fuel Natural Prepared
Solid Wood Coal , Coke
Peat Charcoal
Lignite Coal Anthracite
Liquid Petroleum Gasoline
Kerosene
Gaseous Natural Gas Coal Gas
Coke Oven
Blast Furnace
Solid Fuels
Coal its main components are Carbon, Hydrogen
Nitrogen, Sulphur, moisture and ash. Pass through
different stages like Peat, Lignite Brown Coal Semi-
bituminous coal Bituminous Coal, Semi Anthracite
Anthracite
Properties of Coal :-
1. Energy Content of heating value
2. Sulpher Content
3. Burning Characteristics
4. Grind-ability
5. Ash

Anthracite:- This is the highest grade of coal. It
contains a high content, 86 to 98 mass percent of
fixed carbon and a low content of volatile matter,
less than 2 to 14 mass percent chiefly methane,
CH
n
.
Anthracite is a shiny black, dense, hard, brittle coal
that borders on graphite at the upper end of fixed
carbon. It is slow burning and has a heating value
just below that of the highest for bituminous coal . Its
use in steam generators is largely confined to
burning on stokers, and rarely in pulverized form.
Bituminous coal:- The largest group, bituminous coal is a
broad class of coals containing 46 to 86 mass percent of fixed
carbon and 20 to 40 percent of volatile matter of more
complex content than that found in anthracite. It derives its
name from bitumen, an asphaltic residue obtained in the
distillation of some fuels. Bituminous coals range in heating
value from 11,000 to more than 14,000 Btu/lb (about 25,600
to 32,600 kJ/kg). Bituminous coals usually burn easily,
especially in pulverized form.
Sub-bituminous coal:- This is a class of coal with
generally lower heating values than bituminous coal, between
8300 to 11,500 Btu/lb (about 19,300 to 26,750 kJ/kg). It is
relatively high in inherent moisture content, as much as 15 to
30 percent, but often low in sulfur content. It is brownish black
or black and mostly homogeneous in structure. Sub-
bituminous coals are usually burned in pulverized form. The
sub-bituminous rank is divided into three groups: A, B, and C.


Lignite:- The lowest grade of coal, lignite derives its name
from the Latin lignum, which means wood. It is brown and
laminar in structure, and remnants of wood fiber are often
visible in it. It originates mostly from resin-rich plants and is
therefore high in both inherent moisture, as high as 30
percent, and volatile matter. Its heating value ranges
between less than 6300 to 8300 Btu/lb. (about 14,650 to
19,300 kJ/kg). Because of the high moisture content and
low heating value, lignite it is not economical to transport
over long distances and it is usually burned by utilities at
the mine site. The lignite rank is subdivided into two
groups: A and B.
Lignite
Peat:- Peat is not an ASTM rank of coal. It is,
however, considered the first geological step in
coals formation. Peat is a heterogeneous material
consisting of decomposed plant matter and
inorganic minerals. It contains up to 90 percent
moisture. Although not attractive as a utility fuel, it is
abundant in many parts of the world. Several states
in the United States have large deposits. Because of
its abundance, it is used in a few countries (Ireland,
Finland, the USSR) in some electric generating
plants and in district heating.
A good Coal should have:
i. Low ash content and high calorific value
ii. Small percentage of Sulphur
iii. Burning characteristics etc.
Grading of Coal:-
Grading is done on the following basis:
i. Size ii. Heating value
iii. Ash Content iv.Ash Softening temperature
v. Sulphur Content.
A grade written as (5 10 cm, 500-A8-F24-S1.6)
PULVERIZED-COAL FIRING
The commercial development of methods for firing coal in pulverized form is a
landmark in the history of steam generation. It made possible the construction
of large, efficient, and reliable steam generators and power plants. The concept
of firing powdered coal, as it was called in earlier times, dates back to Carnot ,
whose idea envisaged its use for the Carnot cycle; to Diesel, who used it in his
first experiments on the engine that now bears his name; to Thomas Edison,
who improved its firing in cement kilns, thus improving their efficiency and
production; and to many others. It was not, however, until the pioneering efforts
of John Anderson and his associates and the forerunner of the present
Wisconsin Electric Power Company that pulverized coal was used successfully
in electric generating power plants at their Oneida Street and Lakeside
Stations, Milwaukee, Wisconsin .
Liquid Fuels
Petroleum :- Heavy oil or crude oil is refined in
refineries, which gives most important product
called petrol. Composition of some liquid fuels is
as under:-

Fuel Carbon Hydrogen Sulphur Ash
Petrol 85.5 14.4 0.1 -
Benzene 91.7 8.0 0.3 -
Kerosene 86.3 13.6 0.1 -
Diesel Oil 86.3 12.8 0.9 -
Light Fuel 86.2 12.4 1.4 -
Heavy Fuel 88.3 9.5 1.2 1.0
Important properties of Liquid Fuels
i. Specific gravity ii. Flash Point
iii. Volatility iii. Ash content
iv. Sulphur Content v. Corrosive property
vi. Heating value
Liquid fuels should have:
i. Low ash Content
ii. High heating value
iii. Less corrosive tendency
iv. Less Sulphur content


Gaseous Fuels
Natural Gas: The main components of natural gas are Methane (CH
4
)
and Ethane (C
2
H
6
). It has calorific value nearly 21000 kJ/m
3 .
Natural
gas is used alternately of simultaneously with oil for internal
combustion.

Coal Gas: Hydrogen, Carbon monoxide, hydro-carbons. Prepared by
carbonization of coal. Used in boilers and for commercial purpose.

Coke Oven Gas: It is obtained during the production of coke by
heating the bituminous coal

Blast Furnace gas: It is produced during smelting operation in which
air is forced through layers of coke and iron ore.


Advantages :
i. Cleanliness
ii. Better Control of combustion
iii. No problem of storage
iv. Much less excess air is required for complete
combustion
v. More efficiency of furnace operation
Composition of gaseous Fuels:

H
2
, CO, CH
4
, C
2
H
4
, C
2
H
6
, C
4
H
8
, CO
2
,

O
2
, N
2
Energy Stored in Water
The energy stored in flowing streams of water
contain Mechanical Energy. It may exist as the kinetic
energy of a moving stream or as a potential energy of
water (dam).

Water power is quite cheap where water is available
in abundance.

Capital Cost of hydroelectric power plant is higher.

Operating cost is low.
Nuclear Energy
Nuclear power is cheaper as compared to other
energy sources.
i. 1 kg of Uranium = 4500 tones coal = 2000
tones of oil

The capital cost is higher and there is safety
factor is also involved and problem of disposal
of radio- active material is also there.
Wind Energy
The expense of installation and variability of
operation have tend to limit the use of wind
mills.
i. No fuel provision and transport are required
ii. Non polluting
iii. No maintenance is required over a long period
iv. Working life is about 20-25 years.
Disadvantages:
Noisy , Large area is required to build a wind form,
Irregular source
Solar Energy
10
14
KW energy is being received by the surface
of earth, however this amount of energy is not
easily convertible.

not constantly available

Capital investment is high for the conversion
apparatus.

Calorific value of Fuels
The amount of heat produced by the complete
combustion of a unit wieght of fuel is known as
its calorific value. In case of solid or liquid fuel, it
is expressed as cal/gm or Kcal/kg. In case of
gaseous fuels it is expressed as cal/litre or
Kcal/lit
Comparison of fuels
Advantages of liquid fuels over Solid fuels
i) handling of liq fuel is easier. Require less
space
ii)Combustion of liquid fuel is uniform
iii)Solid fuels have higher moisture. Burn with
difficulty
iv)Waste product ash is cumbersome to dispose
v) Firing of liquid fuel can be controlled easily.
Hence easy to manage load
Comparison of fuels
Advantages of Solid fuels over liquid fuels

Liquid fuels danger of explosion
Liquid fuels are costlier
Sometimes liquid fuels generate unpleasant
odour while burning
Liquid fuels require special type of burners
Liquid fuels need to be heated in cold weather to
avoid freezing
Sources of Energy
Comparison

Sr.
No
Particular
Water
Power
Fuels Nuclear
1 Initial Cost High Low Highest
2 Running Cost Less High Least
3 Reserves Permanent Exhaustible Inexhaustible
4 Cleanliness Cleanest Dirtiest Clean
5 Simplicity Simplest Complex Most Complex
6 Reliability Most
Reliable
Less
Reliable
More Reliable
26
Operating Costs
Nuclear: $10/MWh
Coal: $40/MWh
Wind: couple $/MWh
Hydro: few $/MWh
Solar: $0/MWh
Natural Gas:
cost in $/MWh is 7 to 20 times fuel cost in
$/MBtu;
for example, with $8/MBtu gas, cost is
$56/MWh to $160/MWh.


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Energy
Energy:
Integration of power over time,
Energy is what people really want from a power
system,
How much work you accomplish over time.
Energy Units:
Joule = 1 watt-second (J)
kWh kilowatthour (3.6 x 10
6
J)
Btu 1055 J; 1 MBtu=0.292 MWh
U.S. electric energy consumption is about 3600 billion
kWh (about 13,333 kWh per person, which means on
average each person use 1.5 kW of power continuously).

Units of Energy
1 watt-hour=1wattx1hour
=1watt x 3600sec=3600 watt-sec
1kilowatthour=
1kw x 1hour=1000watts x 3600sec
=36x10
5
watt sec
Heat
Heat is form of energy which produces sense of
warmth. Units are Calorie, British thermal units
(B.T.U) and centigrade heat units (C.H.U)



Units of Energy
Calorie
Amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of 1 gm of water through 1 Centigrade.
Ikcal=1Kg x 1C=1000gm x 1C=1000 Calories
BTU
Amount of heat required to raise temp of 1 lb of
water through 1 F
CHU
Amount of heat required to raise temp of 1 lb of
water through 1 C



Relationship among energy units
i) Electrical and Mechanical
1KWh=1kw x 1Hr=1000Watts x 3600 Sec
=36X10
5
watt-sec or joules
ii) Heat and Mechanical
a)1 Calorie=4.18 J (By experiment)
b)1CHU=1lb x 1C=453.6 gms x 1C=453.6Cals
=453.6 x 4.18=1896 Joules
c) 1BTU=1lb x 1F=453.6 grams x 5/9C=252 Calories
=252 x 4.18 joules=1053 joules
Relationship among energy units
iii) Electrical and Heat
a) 1KWh=3600000 Joules=3600000/4.18
=860 x 10
3
Calories=860 Kcals
b) 1KWH=36X10
5
Joules=
36 x 10
5
/1896CHU=1898 CHU

c) 1kWh=36x10
5
/1053 BTU=3418 BTU
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Power
Power:
Instantaneous rate of consumption of
energy,
How hard you work!
Power = voltage x current for dc
Power Units:
Watts = amps times volts (W)
kW 1 x 10
3
Watt
MW 1 x 10
6
Watt
GW 1 x 10
9
Watt


CHOICE OF TYPE OF GENERATION
The general points which, should be considered in selecting the
type of generation are as follows:

1. The selection of the type of power station depends on the kind
of fuel available and its cost, availability of suitable site for
water power, nature of the load to be supplied. etc .

2. The selection of the site of a power station depends on many
factors, including the cost of:-

i. Transmitting the energy,
ii Fuel transportation
iii roads - rail or water transports
iv cost of an oil pipeline, etc.
v. the cost of land,
vi the availability of an adequate supply of cooling water,
vii and the avoidance of atmospheric pollution.


3. Location of power station for economy in distribution
costs:-
For the most economical distribution and lowest cost of power and
energy, the power station should be located at the centre of gravity
of the load if a suitable site is available. In a densely populated city
this may suggest that the power station should be practically in the
heart of the city. A diesel station of medium size (not very
unwieldy) could be located there, but the installation of a steam
station would present a number of problems. In general, it would
not be economical to have a steam station in the city unless it was
of very small capacity for the supply of local power to an industrial
plant, e.g. a textile mill. When, as is usual, a steam station is
located on the outskirts of a city, it is necessary to have longer
feeders than would be otherwise required, if the station were
located at the centre of gravity of the load. Hydro-electric power
stations need suitable sites which will normally be remote from the
load centers. Thus they cannot be located at the centre of gravity
of the load, and may need very long transmission lines to bring the
power to the place where it is required.
Cost of land and taxes
The cost of land as well as taxes on land are dependent on the
situation of the proposed power station. In a big city, the cost
would be more than in a small town or outside the metropolis.
The taxes also would be higher for land in the centre of a
commercial city. This is therefore, an important point to be
considered in the economic selection of a site.

Space required
The space and building required by the power station is another
point to be considered. If the building and space required are
both large, the cost of land as well as building will be large. Thus
large plants in the hearts of big cities and near the centers of
gravity of load are not economic.
Diesel stations:- are normally of small size and need less
space. Steam stations:- need much more space for boiler
house, mechanical-handling equipment, storage, of coal, ash
disposal, etc,
Hydropower plants:- Suitable place where water is available at
enough head.
Interest and depreciation
The capital required initially depends on the total
investment for the station, power system layout and
installation. The rate of interest on the capital depends only
on the money available in the market, and not on the type
or station.
The depreciation cost, varies with the type of the plant.
The diesel station may be taken to have a depreciation of
about 6%. i.e. the life of a diesel engine set may be taken
as 15 to 16 years. Steam plants have a longer life, of 20 to
25 years, and their depreciation may be taken as 3.5% to
4%. Hydro-electric plant can last for a very long time, as
wear and tear is very slight; their depreciation may be
taken as between 1% and 2%.
Size and cost of plant:-
The cost per kilowatt of the capacity of a unit decreases as
the size of the unit increases. It is, therefore, more
economical to use a few generating units of large size than
a larger number of small size units for the same total
capacity.
Cost of fuel:-
The cost of fuel is an important consideration in deciding
the type of power plant for a particular location.
For steam plants, the cost of coal for the boilers and the
availability of coal are important considerations.
Alternatively, boilers may be oil fired. For hydro-electric
plants there is no cost of fuel as the source of power is
water.
Availability of sites for water power
Foundations
Foundation construction problems should be taken into
account in deciding the location of the power station. These
will depend on the weight and size of the machines, the
space required for machines and building, and how
foundations for such heavy machines can be built on the
soil available.
Noise
Storage space for fuel
Transport facilities
Availability of water for cooling and steam generation
Nature of load
Degree of reliability
Cost of purchased power
Process steam
CHOICE OF SIZE OF GENERATOR UNITS AND
NUMBER OF UNITS
The load on a power station is never constant, owing to
variable demands at different times of the day. The nature
of these demands is seen approximately from the predicted
load curve. The variation is greater with a poorer load
factor. The minimum capacity of the generating plant in the
station must be sufficient to meet , the maximum demand.
The minimum number of units chosen could be one. In this
case, however, the prime mover and generator would be
working on full load only [or a short time, during the period
of maximum demand or whenever the load is approximated
to the maximum demand.
Variable Load on Power Stations
Most Complexities are because of Load
variations
Power is to be produced as and when required
Max efficiency vs load
Function of Power System is to connect Power
Plant to the Consumers load by interconnected
system of transmission and distribution netwok
Priniciple components of PS are: Power Station,
transmission lines and distribution systems
Variable Load
Effects of variable load
i) Need of additional equipment
ii) increase in production cost
Load Curves:
The curve showing the variation of load on the power station
with respect to time is known as a load curve.
Daily Load Curves
Monthly Load Curves : used to fix the rate of energy.
Yearly Load Curves : which are used to determine annual
load factor
Load Curves
Figure: Daily load curve of a Power Station
Important Terms
Connected load: It is the sum of continuous
ratings of all the equipments connected to the
system
Maximum demand: It is the greatest demand of
load on the power stations during a given period.
Max demand is less than connected load
Demand factor: max demand/connected load
Average load: The averages of loads occurring
on power station in a given period is known as
average load
Important Terms
Daily av load=No of units (KWH) generated in a
day/24
Monthly av load=No of units generated in a
month/number of hours in a month
Yearly av load=no of units generated in a
year/8760 hrs
Load factor=Av load/max demand
=Units generated in T
hours
/Max demand X T
hours
Diversity factor=sum of individual max
demands/max demand on power station
Generating Stations
Bulk electric power is produced by special plants
known as generating stations or power plants
A generating station employs a prime mover
coupled to an alternator for production of electric
power
Prime mover ( steam turbine or water turbine)
converts some other form of energy into
mechanical energy. Alternator converts
mechanical energy into electrical
Classification of Generating stations
Steam power stations (Thermal )
Hydroelectric power stations
Nuclear power stations
Combined cycle power plants
Diesel power stations
Wind
Solar
Geo thermal
etc
Steam Power Station
A generating station which converts heat
energy of coal, FO, Diesel, Gas into electrical
energy is known as steam power station
Steam produced in boiler
Steam is expanded in prime mover and
condensed in condenser
Steam turbine moves alternator which
converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy
Steam Power Station
Advantages
The fuel (i.e. coal) used is quite cheap
Less initial cost as compared to other
generating stations
Installed at any location. Only coal needs to
be transported
Requires less space as compared to
hydroelectric
Cost of generation is less as compared to
Diesel power stations
Steam Power Station
Disadvantages
Pollution of air
Running cost more than Hydroelectric stations
Steam Power Station
Schematic arrangement of Steam Power
Station
1 Coal and ash handling plant
Coal pulverized to increase surface exposure
Pulverized coal is fed to the boiler by belt
conveyer. Coal burnt in boiler and ash removed
100MW thermal power station on 50% load factor
Requires 20000 tons of coal per month; 10-15% of
burned coal is ash produced

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