Educational Research

Topic 4

Topics Discussed in this Chapter

Quantitative sampling

Selecting random samples

Selecting non-random samples

Qualitative sampling

Selecting purposive samples

Quantitative Sampling

Purpose to identify participants from

whom to seek some information
Issues

Nature of the sample

Size of the sample
Method of selecting the sample

Quantitative Sampling

Terminology

Population: all members of a specified group

Target population the population to which the

researcher ideally wants to generalize
Accessible population the population to which the
researcher has access

Sample: a subset of a population

Subject: a specific individual participating in a
study
Sampling technique: the specific method used to
select a sample from a population
Obj. 1.1, 1.2, & 1.3

Quantitative Sampling

Important issues

Representation the extent to which the sample

is representative of the population

Demographic characteristics
Personal characteristics
Specific traits

Generalization the extent to which the results of

the study can be reasonably extended from the
sample to the population
Obj. 1.4

Quantitative Sampling

Important issues (continued)

Sampling error

The chance occurrence that a randomly

selected sample is not representative of the
population due to errors inherent in the
sampling technique
Random nature of errors
Controlled by selecting large samples
Obj. 6.1

Quantitative Sampling

Important issues (continued)

Sampling bias

Some aspect of the researchers sampling design creates

bias in the data
Non-random nature of errors
Controlled by being aware of sources of sampling bias
and avoiding them
Examples

Surveying only students who attend additional help

sessions in a class
Using data returned from only 25% of those sent a
questionnaire
Obj. 6.2

Quantitative Sampling

Important issues (continued)

Three fundamental steps

Identify a population
Define the sample size
Select the sample

Obj. 1.5

Quantitative Sampling

Important issues (continued)

General rules for sample size

As many subjects as possible

Thirty (30) subjects per group for correlational,
causal-comparative, and true experimental
designs
Ten (10) to twenty (20) percent of the
population for descriptive designs
Obj. 1.8

Quantitative Sampling

Important issues (continued)

General rules for sample size (continued)

See Table 4.2 for additional guidelines for survey

research

The larger the population size, the smaller the percentage

of the population needed to get a representative sample
For population of less than 100, use the entire population
If the population is about 500, sample 50%
If the population is about 1,500, sample 20%
If the population is larger than 5,000, sample 400
Obj. 1.9

Selecting Random Samples

Known as probability sampling

Best method to achieve a
representative sample
Four techniques

Random
Stratified random
Cluster
Systematic
Obj. 1.7

Selecting Random Samples

Random sampling

Selecting subjects so that all members of a

population have an equal and independent chance
of being selected
Advantages

Easy to conduct
High probability of achieving a representative sample
Meets assumptions of many statistical procedures

Disadvantages

Identification of all members of the population can be

difficult
Contacting all members of the sample can be difficult
Obj. 1.6, 2.2, & 4.9

Selecting Random Samples

Random sampling (continued)

Selection process

Identify and define the population

Determine the desired sample size
List all members of the population
Assign all members on the list a consecutive number
Select an arbitrary starting point from a table of random
numbers and read the appropriate number of digits
If the number corresponds to a number assigned to an
individual in the population, that individual is in the
sample; if not, ignore the number
Continue until the desired number of subjects have been
selected
Obj. 2.3

Selecting Random Samples

Random sampling (continued)

Selection issues

Use a table of random numbers

Need to list all members of the population

Ignore duplicates and numbers out of range when sampled
Potentially time consuming and frustrating

Use SPSS-Windows or other software to select a random

sample

Create a SPSS-Windows data set of the population or their

identification numbers
Pull-down commands
Data, select cases, random sample, approximate or
exact

Selecting Random Samples

Stratified random sampling

Selecting subjects so that relevant subgroups in

the population (i.e., strata) are guaranteed
representation
A strata represents a variable on which the
researcher would like to see representation in the
sample

Gender
Ethnicity
Grade level
Obj. 3.1 & 3.3

Selecting Random Samples

Stratified random sampling (continued)

Proportional and non-proportional (i.e., equal size)

Proportional same proportion of subgroups in the

sample as in the population

If a population has 45% females and 55% males, the

sample should have 45% females and 55% males

Non-proportional different, often equal, proportions of

subgroups

Selecting the same number of children from each of the

five grades in a school even though there are different
numbers of children in each grade
Obj. 3.4

Selecting Random Samples

Stratified random sampling (continued)

Advantages

More precise sample

Can be used for both proportional and non-proportional
samples
Representation of subgroups in the sample

Disadvantages

Identification of all members of the population can be

difficult
Identifying members of all subgroups can be difficult
Obj. 3.2 & 4.9

Selecting Random Samples

Stratified random sampling (continued)

Selection process

Identify and define the population

Determine the desired sample size
Identify the variable and subgroups (i.e.,
strata) for which you want to guarantee
appropriate representation
Classify all members of the population as
members of one of the identified subgroups
Obj. 4.1

Selecting Random Samples

Stratified random sampling (continued)

Selection process (continued)

For proportional stratified samples

Randomly select a number of individuals from each

subgroup so the proportion of these individuals in
the sample is the same as that in the population

For non-proportional stratified samples

Randomly select an equal number of individuals from

each subgroup
Obj. 4.1

Selecting Random Samples

Stratified random sampling (continued)

Selection process for proportional samples

Identify and define the population

Determine the desired sample size
Identify the variable and subgroups (i.e., strata) for
which you want to guarantee appropriate representation
Classify all members of the population as members of
one of the identified subgroups
Randomly select an equal number of individuals from
each subgroup
Obj. 4.1

Selecting Random Samples

Cluster sampling

Selecting subjects by using groups that have

similar characteristics and in which subjects can
be found

Clusters are locations within which an intact group of

members of the population can be found
Examples

Neighborhoods
School districts
Schools
Classrooms
Obj. 4.3

Selecting Random Samples

Cluster sampling (continued)

Multistage sampling involves the use of

two or more sets of clusters

Randomly select a number of school districts

from a population of districts
Randomly select a number of schools from
within each of the school districts
Randomly select a number of classrooms from
within each school
Obj. 4.6

Selecting Random Samples

Cluster sampling (continued)

Advantages

Very useful when populations are large and spread over

a large geographic region
Convenient and expedient
Do not need the names of everyone in the population

Disadvantages

Representation is likely to become an issue

Assumptions of some statistical procedures can be
violated
Obj. 4.9

Selecting Random Samples

Cluster sampling (continued)

Selection process

Identify and define the population

Determine the desired sample size
Identify and define a logical cluster
List all clusters that make up the population of clusters
Estimate the average number of population members per
cluster
Determine the number of clusters needed by dividing the
sample size by the estimated size of a cluster
Randomly select the needed numbers of clusters
Include in the study all individuals in each selected
cluster
Obj. 4.4

Selecting Random Samples

Systematic sampling

Selecting every Kth subject from a list of the

members of the population
Advantage

Very easily done

Disadvantages

Susceptible to systematic exclusion of some subgroups

Some members of the population dont have an equal
chance of being included

Obj. 4.7 & 4.9

Selecting Random Samples

Systematic sampling (continued)

Selection process

Identify and define the population

Determine the desired sample size
Obtain a list of the population
Determine what K is equal to by dividing the size of the
population by the desired sample size
Start at some random place in the population list
Take every Kth individual on the list
If the end of the list is reached before the desired
sample is reached, go back to the top of the list
Obj. 4.8

Selecting Non-Random Samples

Known as non-probability sampling

Use of methods that do not have random
sampling at any stage
Useful when the population cannot be
described
Three techniques

Convenience
Purposive
Quota
Obj. 5.1

Selecting Non-Random Samples

Convenience sampling

Selection based on the availability of

subjects

Volunteers
Pre-existing groups

Concerns related to representation and

generalizability

Obj. 5.2 & 5.3

Selecting Non-Random Samples

Purposive sampling

Selection based on the researchers experience

and knowledge of the individuals being sampled

Usually selected for some specific reason

Knowledge and use of a particular instructional strategy

Experience
Being in a specific setting such as a school changing to a
teacher-based decision-making process

Need for clear criteria for describing and

defending the sample
Concerns related to representation and
generalizability
Obj. 5.2 & 5.4

Selecting Non-Random Samples

Quota sampling

Selection based on the exact characteristics

and quotas of subjects in the sample when
it is impossible to list all members of the
population
Concerns with accessibility, representation,
and generalizability
Obj. 5.2 & 5.5

Quantitative Sampling Comments

Both probability and non-random sampling

techniques are used in quantitative research

Probability models are desired due to the selection

of a representative sample and the ease with
which the results can be generalized to the
population
Non-random (i.e., non-probability) models are
frequently used due the reality of the situations in
which the research is being conducted

Concerns with representation

Concerns with generalization

Qualitative Sampling

Unique characteristics of qualitative research

In-depth inquiry
Immersion in the setting
Importance of context
Appreciation of participants perspectives
Description of a single setting

The need for alternative sampling strategies

Obj. 7.2

Qualitative Sampling

Purposive techniques relying on the

experience and insight of the researcher
to select participants

Intensity compare differences of two or

more levels of the topics

Students with extremely positive and extremely

negative attitudes
Effective and ineffective teachers
Obj. 7.3

Qualitative Sampling

Purposive techniques (continued)

Homogeneous small groups of

participants who fit a narrow homogeneous
topic
Criterion all participants who meet a
defined criteria
Snowball initial participants lead to other
participants
Obj. 7.4, 7.5, & 7.6

Qualitative Sampling

Purposive techniques (continued)

Random purposive given a pool of

participants, random selection of a small
sample

Combinations of techniques
Inherent concerns related to
generalizability and representation
Obj. 7.7 & 7.8

Qualitative Sampling

Sample size

Generally very small samples given the

nature of the data collection methods and
the data itself
Two general guidelines

Redundancy of the information collected from

participants
Representation of the range of potential
participants in the setting
Obj. 7.9

Generalizability

Probability sampling

Begins with a population

and selects a sample
from it
Generalizability to the
population is relatively
easy

Non-probability and
purposive sampling

Begins with a sample

that is NOT selected from
some larger population
Must consider the
population hypothetical
as it is based on the
characteristics of the
sample
Generalizability is often
very limited
Obj. 7.10