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Chapter 1
Chemistry:
Methods and Measurement

Denniston
Topping
Caret
5th Edition

1.1 The Discovery Process

Chemistry - The study of matter
Matter - Anything that has mass and
occupies space
A table
A piece paper
What about air?
Yes, it is matter

1.1 The Discovery Process

Chemistry:
the study of matter
its chemical and physical properties
the chemical and physical changes it
undergoes
the energy changes that accompany
those processes
Energy - the ability to do work to
accomplish some change

1.1 The Discovery Process

MAJOR AREAS OF CHEMISTRY

Biochemistry - the study of life at the
molecular level
Organic chemistry - the study of matter
containing carbon and hydrogen
Inorganic chemistry - the study of
matter containing elements, not organic
Analytic chemistry - analyze matter to
determine identity and composition

1.1 The Discovery Process

Physical chemistry - attempts to

explain the way matter behaves
public health

pharmaceutical industry

CHEMISTRY
food science
medical practitioners
forensic sciences

1.1 The Discovery Process

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

The scientific method - a systematic
approach to the discovery of new
information
Characteristics of the scientific process
1. Observation
2. Formulation of a question
3. Pattern recognition
4. Developing theories
5. Experimentation
6. Summarizing information

1.1 The Discovery Process

1.1 The Discovery Process

Models in Chemistry
To aid in understanding of
a chemical unit or system
a model is often used
good models are based on
everyday experience

Ball and stick methane

model
color code balls
sticks show attractive forces
holding atoms together

1.2 Matter and Properties

Properties - characteristics of matter
chemical vs. physical

Three states of matter

1. gas - particles widely separated, no definite
shape or volume solid
2. liquid - particles closer together, definite
volume but no definite shape
3. solid - particles are very close together, define
shape and definite volume

Three States of Water

(a) Solid

(b) Liquid

(c) Gas

1.2 Matter and Properties

Comparison of the Three

Physical States

1.2 Matter and Properties

Physical property - is observed

without changing the composition or
identity of a substance
Physical change - produces a
recognizable difference in the
appearance of a substance without
causing any change in its composition
or identity
- conversion from one physical state to
another
- melting an ice cube

Separation by Physical Properties

Magnetic iron is separated from other nonmagnetic

substances, such as sand. This property is used as
a large-scale process in the recycling industry.

1.2 Matter and Properties

Chemical property - result in a

change in composition and can be
observed only through a chemical
reaction
Chemical reaction (chemical
change) - a process of rearranging,
removing, replacing, or adding atoms
to produce new substances
hydrogen + oxygen water
reactants

products

1.2 Matter and Properties

Classify the following as either a

chemical or physical property:
a. Color
b. Flammability
c. Hardness
d. Odor
e. Taste

1.2 Matter and Properties

Classify the following as either a

chemical or physical change:
a. Boiling water becomes steam
b. Butter turns rancid
c. Burning of wood
d. Mountain snow pack melting in
spring
e. Decay of leaves in winter

1.2 Matter and Properties

Intensive properties - a property of

matter that is independent of the
quantity of the substance
- Density
- Specific gravity

Extensive properties - a property of

matter that depends on the quantity of
the substance
- Mass
- Volume

1.2 Matter and Properties

Classification of Matter

Pure substance - a substance that has only one

component
Mixture - a combination of two or more pure
substances in which each substance retains its
own identity, not undergoing a chemical reaction

1.2 Matter and Properties

Classification of Matter

Element - a pure substance that cannot be

changed into a simpler form of matter by any
chemical reaction
Compound - a substance resulting from the
combination of two or more elements in a
definite, reproducible way, in a fixed ratio

1.2 Matter and Properties

Classification of Matter

Mixture - a combination of two or more pure

substances in which each substance retains its own
identity

Homogeneous - uniform composition, particles well

mixed, thoroughly intermingled

Heterogeneous nonuniform composition, random

placement

1.2 Matter and Properties

Classes of Matter

1.3 Measurement in Chemistry

Data, Results, and Units
Data - each piece is an individual result of a single
measurement or observation
mass of a sample
temperature of a solution

Results - the outcome of the experiment

Data and results may be identical, however usually
related data are combined to generate a result
Units - the basic quantity of mass, volume or
whatever quantity is being measured
A measurement is useless without its units

1.3 Measurement in
Chemistry

English and Metric Units

English system - a collection of
functionally unrelated units
Difficult to convert from one unit to
another
1 foot = 12 inches = 0.33 yard = 1/5280 miles

Metric System - composed of a set of

units that are related to each other
decimally, systematic
Units relate by powers of tens
1 meter = 10 decimeters = 100 centimeters = 1000
millimeters

1.3 Measurement in
Chemistry

Basic Units of the Metric System

Mass
Length
Volume

gram
meter
liter

g
m
L

Basic units are the units of a quantity

without any metric prefix

1.3 Measurement in
Chemistry

1.3 Measurement in
Chemistry

UNIT CONVERSION
You must be able to convert between
units
- within the metric system
- between the English system and metric system

The method used for conversion is called

the Factor-Label Method or Dimensional
Analysis

!!!!!!!!!!! VERY IMPORTANT !!!!!!!!!!!

1.3 Measurement in
Chemistry

Let your units do the work for you by

simply memorizing connections
between units.
For example: How many donuts are in
one dozen?
We say: Twelve donuts are in a dozen.
Or: 12 donuts = 1 dozen donuts

What does any number divided by

itself equal?
ONE!

12 donuts
1
1 dozen

1.3 Measurement in
Chemistry

12 donuts
1
1 dozen
This fraction is called a unit factor
What does any number times one equal?
That number
Multiplication by a unit factor does not change
the amount only the unit

1.3 Measurement in
Chemistry

We use these two mathematical facts to

use the factor label method
a number divided by itself = 1
any number times one gives that number
back

Example: How many donuts are in 3.5

dozen?
You can probably do this in your head
but try it using the Factor-Label
Method.

1.3 Measurement in
Chemistry

Start with the given information...

12 donuts
3.5 dozen
1 dozen

= 42 donuts

Then set up your unit factor...

See that the units cancel...
Then multiply and divide all numbers...

1.3 Measurement in
Chemistry

Common English System Units

Convert 12 gallons to units of quarts

1.3 Measurement in
Chemistry

Intersystem Conversion Units

Convert 4.00 ounces to kilograms

1.3 Measurement in
Chemistry

1. Convert 5.5 inches to millimeters

2. Convert 50.0 milliliters to pints

3. Convert 1.8 in2 to cm2

1.4 Significant Figures and

Scientific Notation
Information-bearing digits or figures in a
number are significant figures
The measuring devise used determines the
number of significant figures a
measurement has
The amount of uncertainty associated with a
measurement is indicated by the number of
digits or figures used to represent the
information

1.4 Significant Figures

and Scientific Notation

Significant figures - all digits in a number

representing data or results that are known
with certainty plus one uncertain digit

1.4 Significant Figures

and Scientific Notation

Recognition of Significant Figures

All nonzero digits are significant
7.314 has four significant digits

The number of significant digits is independent

of the position of the decimal point
73.14 also has four significant digits

Zeros located between nonzero digits are

significant
60.052 has five significant digits

1.4 Significant Figures

and Scientific Notation

Use of Zeros in Significant

Figures
Zeros at the end of a number (trailing zeros) are
significant if the number contains a decimal point.
4.70 has three significant digits

Trailing zeros are insignificant if the number does

not contain a decimal point.
100 has one significant digit; 100. has three

Zeros to the left of the first nonzero integer are not

significant.
0.0032 has two significant digits

1.4 Significant Figures

and Scientific Notation

How many significant figures are in

the following?
1. 3.400
2. 3004
3. 300.
4. 0.003040

1.4 Significant Figures

and Scientific Notation

Scientific Notation
Used to express very large or very small
numbers easily and with the correct number
of significant figures
Represents a number as a power of ten
Example:
4,300 = 4.3 x 1,000 = 4.3 x 103

1.4 Significant Figures

and Scientific Notation

To convert a number greater than 1 to

scientific notation, the original decimal point
is moved x places to the left, and the resulting
number is multiplied by 10x
The exponent x is a positive number equal to
the number of places the decimal point moved

5340 = 5.34 x 104

What if you want to show the above number
has four significant figures?

= 5.340 x 104

1.4 Significant Figures

and Scientific Notation

To convert a number less than 1 to scientific

notation, the original decimal point is moved x
places to the right, and the resulting number is
multiplied by 10-x
The exponent x is a negative number equal to
the number of places the decimal point moved

0.0534 = 5.34 x 10-2

1.4 Significant Figures

and Scientific Notation

Types of Uncertainty
Error - the difference
between the true value
and our estimation
Random
Systematic

Accuracy - the degree

of agreement between
the true value and the
measured value

Precision - a measure
of the agreement of
replicate measurements

1.4 Significant Figures

and Scientific Notation

Significant Figures in Calculation of

Results
Rules for Addition and Subtraction
The result in a calculation cannot have greater
significance than any of the quantities that
produced the result
Consider:
37.68
6.71862
108.428
152.82662

liters
liters
liters
liters

correct answer 152.83 liters

1.4 Significant Figures

and Scientific Notation

Rules for Multiplication and Division

The answer can be no more precise than the least
precise number from which the answer is derived
The least precise number is the one with the
fewest significant figures

4.2 103 (15.94)

8

2
.
9688692

10
(on calculator)
4
2.255 10

Which number has the fewest

significant figures? 4.2 x 103 has only 2
The answer is therefore, 3.0 x 10-8

1.4 Significant Figures

and Scientific Notation

Exact and Inexact Numbers

Inexact numbers have uncertainty by
definition
Exact numbers are a consequence of
counting
A set of counted items (beakers on a shelf)
has no uncertainty
Exact numbers by definition have an
infinite number of significant figures

1.4 Significant Figures

and Scientific Notation

Rules for Rounding Off Numbers

When the number to be dropped is less
than 5 the preceding number is not
changed
When the number to be dropped is 5 or
larger, the preceding number is increased
by one unit
Round the following number to 3
significant figures: 3.34966 x 104
=3.35 x 104

1.4 Significant Figures

and Scientific Notation

How Many Significant Figures?

Round off each number to 3 significant
figures:
1. 61.40
2. 6.171
3. 0.066494

1.5 Experimental Quantities

Mass - the quantity of matter in an object
not synonymous with weight
standard unit is the gram

Weight = mass x acceleration due to gravity

Mass must be measured on a balance (not a
scale)

1.5 Experimental Quantities

Units should be chosen to suit the

quantity described

A dump truck is measured in tons

A person is measured in kg or pounds
A paperclip is measured in g or ounces
An atom?

For atoms, we use the atomic mass unit

(amu)
1 amu = 1.661 x 10-24 g

1.5 Experimental Quantities

Length - the distance between two points

standard unit is the meter
long distances are measured in km
distances between atoms are measured in nm,
1 nm = 10-9 m

Volume - the space occupied by an object

standard unit is the liter
the liter is the volume occupied by 1000
grams of water at 4 oC
1 mL = 1/1000 L = 1 cm3

1.5 Experimental Quantities

The milliliter
(mL) and the
cubic centimeter
(cm3) are
equivalent

1.5 Experimental Quantities

Time
- metric unit is the second

Temperature - the degree of hotness

of an object

1.5 Experimental Quantities

Conversions Between Fahrenheit

and Celsius
o

F - 32
C
1.8

F 1.8 ( C) 32
o

1. Convert 75oC to oF
2. Convert -10oF to oC
1. Ans. 167 oF

2. Ans. -23oC

1.5 Experimental Quantities

Kelvin Temperature Scale

The Kelvin scale is another temperature
scale.
It is of particular importance because it is
directly related to molecular motion.
As molecular speed increases, the Kelvin
temperature proportionately increases.
K = oC + 273

1.5 Experimental Quantities

Energy
Energy - the ability to do work
kinetic energy - the energy of motion
potential energy - the energy of position
(stored energy)

Energy is also categorized by form:

light
heat
electrical
mechanical
chemical

1.5 Experimental Quantities

Characteristics of Energy
Energy cannot be created or destroyed
Energy may be converted from one form to
another
Energy conversion always occurs with less
than 100% efficiency
All chemical reactions involve either a
gain or loss of energy

1.5 Experimental Quantities

Units of Energy
Basic Units:
calorie or joule
1 calorie (cal) = 4.184 joules (J)

A kilocalorie (kcal) also known as the

large Calorie. This is the same Calorie as
food Calories.
1 kcal = 1 Calorie = 1000 calories

1 calorie = the amount of heat energy

required to increase the temperature of 1
gram of water 1oC.

1.5 Experimental Quantities

Concentration
Concentration:
the number of particles of a substance
the mass of those particles
that are contained in a specified volume

Often used to represent the mixtures of

different substances
Concentration of oxygen in the air
Pollen counts
Proper dose of an antibiotic

1.5 Experimental Quantities

Density and Specific Gravity

Density
the ratio of mass to volume
an extensive property
use to characterize a substance as
each substance has a unique
density
Units for density include:
g/mL
g/cm3
g/cc

m
d

1.5 Experimental Quantities

cork
water
brass nut

liquid mercury

1.5 Experimental Quantities

Calculating the Density of a

Solid
2.00 cm3 of aluminum are found to weigh
5.40g. Calculate the density of aluminum
in units of g/cm3.
Use the formula
Substitute our values
5.40 g
2.00 cm3
= 2.70 g / cm3

m
d

1.5 Experimental Quantities

Air has a density of 0.0013 g/mL. What

is the mass of 6.0-L sample of air?
Calculate the mass in grams of 10.0 mL
if mercury (Hg) if the density of Hg is
13.6 g/mL.
Calculate the volume in milliliters, of a
liquid that has a density of 1.20 g/mL
and a mass of 5.00 grams.

1.5 Experimental Quantities

Specific Gravity
Values of density are often related to a standard
Specific gravity - the ratio of the density of the object in
question to the density of pure water at 4oC
Specific gravity is a unitless term because the 2 units
cancel
Often the health industry uses specific gravity to test urine
and blood samples

density of object (g/mL)

specific gravity
density of water (g/mL)