The Fundamental problem for cells:

most of the molecules in the cell (proteins, nucleic acids,

polysaccharides, etc.) must be made by joining
monomers (amino acids, nucleotides, monosaccharides)
Endergonic reactions (need energy)
Solution :
transfer phospate group from ATP to another molecule
produce energy
energy coupling.

 Definitions
Metabolism: The processes of catabolism and
anabolism
Catabolism: The processes by which a living
organism obtains its energy and raw materials
from nutrients
Anabolism: The processes by which energy and
raw materials are used to build macromolecules
and cellular structures (biosynthesis)

ENZIM :
o Suatu biokatalisator
o Fungsi : Menurunkan energi
aktivasi ;
reaksi berjalan cepat

Berdasarkan tempat kerja enzim :

1.Endoenzim, enzim intraseluler
2.Eksoenzim, enzim ekstraseluler
Faktor yang mempengaruhi kerja enzim:
Konsentrasi enzim dan substrat
Temperatur
pH
Keberadaan inhibitor dan aktivator
Adanya induktor

Electron Carrier Molecules

molecule that accept electron from electron
donors and donate them to electron acceptors
NADPH, NADH

ENERGY PRODUCTION

1. Substrate level phosphorylation

2. Oxidative phosphorylation
energy generated by passage of electrons
through a series of e- donors and acceptors, and
used to pump protons out of the cell
proton motive force
ATP generation by action of H+ - translocating
ATPase
also use of PMF for transport of substrates into
cell
3. Photophosphorylation

Prokaryotes can be divided into various

physiological groups based on how
they derive energy and assimilate carbon.
Group

Carbon
from

Energy by

Chemolithotrophs

CO2

oxidation of
inorganic
compounds

Photolithotrophs

CO2

light

organic
Chemoheterotrophs
compounds
Photoheterotrophs

organic
compounds

oxidation of
organic
compounds
light

Glycolytic Pathways
Features of glycolytic pathways :
Partial oxidation of glucose to form pyruvic
acid
A small amount of ATP is made
A small amount of NAD is reduced to NADH

 4 major glycolytic pathways found in different

bacteria:
Embden-Meyerhoff-Parnas pathway
Classic glycolysis
Found in almost all organisms
Hexose monophosphate pathway
Also found in most organisms
Responsible for synthesis of pentose sugars used
in nucleotide synthesis
Entner-Doudoroff pathway
Found in Pseudomonas and related genera
Phosphoketolase pathway
Found in Bifidobacterium and Leuconostoc

The EmbdenMeyerhoff-Parnas
pathway

Hexose
monophosphate
pathway

The Entner-Doudoroff Pathway

The
Phosphoketolase
pathway

Fermentation

Features of fermentation pathways

Pyruvic acid is reduced to form reduced
organic acids or alcohols.
The final electron acceptor is a reduced
derivative of pyruvic acid
NADH is oxidized to form NAD: Essential for
continued operation of the glycolytic pathways.
O2 is not required.
No additional ATP are made.
Gasses (CO2 and/or H2) may be released

Fermentation
Examples of fermentation pathways
Lactic acid fermentation
Found in many bacteria;
e.g. Streptococcus cremoris, Lactobacillus
acidophilus
Mixed acid fermentation
e.g. Escherichia coli
Basis of the methyl red test
2,3-Butanediol fermentation e.g. Enterobacter
aerogenes
Basis of the Voges-Proskauer reaction

Model fermentation

Respiration
Pyruvic acid is oxidized completely to CO2.
The final electron acceptor is usually an inorganic
substance.
NADH is oxidized to form NAD.
O2 may or may not be required.
Aerobic respiration: O2 is the final e- acceptor.
Anaerobic respiration: An substance, usually
inorganic, other than O2 is the acceptor (nitrate,
nitrite, sulfate)
A lot of additional ATP are made (up to 36 per glucose
molecule).

Model of Aerobic
respiration.

 Stages of Respiration
Preliminary reactions and the Krebs
cycle (TCA or Citric Acid Cycle)
Respiratory electron transport

Electron transport system

Anaerobic Respiration
Respiration in some procaryotes is possible using
electron acceptors other than oxygen (O2).

anaerobic respiration use of some compound

other than O2 as a final electron acceptor in the
electron transport chain.

Electron acceptors for respiration and methanogenesis in

procaryotes
electron
acceptor

reduced end
product

name of process organism

O2

H2O

aerobic
respiration

Escherichia,
Streptomyces

NO2, NH3 or N2

anaerobic
respiration:
denitrification

Bacillus,
Pseudomonas

S or H2S

anaerobic
respiration:
sulfate reduction

Desulfovibrio

fumarate

succinate

anaerobic
respiration: using
Escherichia
an organic eacceptor

CO2

CH4

methanogenesis

NO3

SO4

Methanococcus

Photosynthesis
Light-dependent Reactions:
Light energy is harvested by photosynthetic
pigments and transferred to special reaction
center (photosystem) chlorophyll molecules.
The light energy is used to strip electrons
from an electron donor (the electron donor
goes from a reduced to an oxidized state).

 The electrons are shuttled through a series of

electron carriers from high energy state to a
low energy state.
During this process, ATP is formed.

 In the cyclic pathway of electron

transport, electrons are returned to the
electron transport chain
In the noncyclic pathway, the
electrons are used to reduce NAD (or
NADP) to NADH (or NADPH)

 ATP and NADH (NADPH) from the lightdependent reactions are used to reduce
CO2 to form organic carbon compounds
(carbon fixation).
The reduced organic carbon is usually
converted into glucose or other
carbohydrates.

 Oxygenic photosynthesis
Found in cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)
and eukaryotic chloroplasts
Electron donor is H2O: Oxidized to form O2
Two photosystems: PSII and PSI
Major function is to produce NADPH and
ATP for the carbon fixation pathways

Electron flow in plant (oxygenic) photosynthesis

 Anoxygenic photosynthesis
Found in:
Green sulfur bacteria (Chlorobium)
Green nonsulfur bacteria (Chloroflexus)
Purple sulfur bacteria (Chromatium)
Purple nonsulfur bacteria (Rhodobacter)

 Anoxygenic photosynthesis
Electron donors vary:
H2S or So in the green and purple sulfur
bacteria
H2 or organic compounds in the green
and purple nonsulfur bacteria

Only one photosystem

-In green bacteria, the photosystem is
similar to PSI
- In purple bacteria, the photosystem is
similar to PSII
Primary function is ATP production, chiefly
via cyclic photophosphorylation

The cyclical flow of electrons during

bacterial (anoxygenic) photosynthesis

Differences between plant and bacterial photosynthesis

plant
photosynthesis

bacterial
photosynthesis

organisms

plants, algae,
cyanobacteria

purple and green

bacteria

type of chlorophyll

chlorophyll a
absorbs 650750nm

bacteriochlorophyll
absorbs 800-1000nm

Photosystem I
(cyclic
present
photophosphorylation)

present

Photosystem I
(noncyclic
present
photophosphorylation)

absent

Produces O2

yes

no

H 2O

H2S, other sulfur

compounds or
certain organic
compounds

Photosynthetic
electron donor

Biosynthesis